manner, Dr. Hammond finds the gnostics every where in the apostolic epistles, which he endeavours to explain from the peculiar notions of that sect, though it is well known Saint John was the only evangelical writer who expressly combated their errors.

(3.) We must take care not to ascribe comparatively modern rites and customs to the antient Hebrews.

From not attending to this rule, the Jewish teachers, and those Christian doctors who have implicitly followed them, have caused much perplexity in the antiquities of the Jews, having attributed to the antient Hebrews rites and ceremonies that did not exist till later times; and, from not distinguishing the different ages, they have consequently confounded antient manners and customs with those which are of modern date. The Talmudists, and other Jewish writers, should not be con sulted without the greatest caution; for, living as they did long after the destruction of the Jewish polity, they not only were imperfectly acquainted with it, but they likewise contradict each other, as well as Josephus and Philo, authors every way more worthy of confidence, as being contemporary with that event; not unfrequently indeed do they contradict the Scriptures themselves, and, indulging their own speculations, they produce commentaries which are truly ridiculous. The necessary consequence is, that those learned men, who have implicitly followed the Talmudists, have been precipitated into various errors. From these mistakes, not even Reland and Ikenius are exempt -two of the best writers, perhaps, who have applied themselves to the investigation of Jewish antiquities.1 (4.) Lastly, our knowledge of Biblical Antiquities must be derived from pure sources.

It is the province of the biblical antiquarian to determine and to state what such pure sources are. Independently of the assistance to be obtained from Jewish as well as from profane writers, it may suffice here to remark, that we may collect accounts of the modes of living among the antient Hebrews, with sufficient precision, by a careful collation of the Old and New Testaments. And if to this we add an acquaintance with the modern customs and manners which prevail in the East, as they are related by travellers of approved character, we shall have a sure and easy access to the knowledge of sacred antiquities: for, as the orientals, from their tenacious adherence to old usages, are not likely to differ materially from their ancestors,2 we have no very great reason to be apprehensive, from comparing the manners, &c. of the modern Syrians, Arabs, and other inhabitants of the east, with those of the antient Hebrews, that we should attribute customs to them which never obtained among them. Where, indeed, any new usage does exist among the orientals, it may be discovered without much difficulty by men of learning and penetration. The interpretation of the Bible, therefore, is not a little facilitated by the perusal of the voyages and travels of those who have explored the East. Among these valuable contributors to the promotion of biblical science, the names of D'Arveiux, Maundrell, Thompson, Chardin, Shaw, Hasselquist, Pococke, Neibuhr, Dr. E. D. Clarke, Lord Valentia, Walpole, Ouseley, Morier, Light, Russell, Chateaubriand, Burkhardt, Buckingham, Belzoni, Dr. Richardson, the Rev. Mr. Jowett, Sir R. K. Porter, and others, are justly celebrated: but as many of their works are voluminous and costly, various writers have judiciously applied themselves to selecting and arranging the most material passages of their travels, which are calculated to elucidate the Holy Scriptures. In this department of sacred literature, the compilations of Harmer, Burder, and the editor of Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, are particularly distinguished. Of these works, as well as of the principal writers on Jewish Antiquities, the reader will find a notice in No. V. of the Appendix to this volume.

2. Sacred and Profane History.—An acquaintance with the hisLibri tres," &c. Amstel. 1696, 4to.; and in his Miscellanea Sacra, tom. i. PP. 429. et seq.

1 Schulzii Compendium Archeologiæ Hebraica, Prolegomena, p. xvii. Bauer, Herm. Sacr. p. 276.

2 "The manners of the East," it is remarked by one of the most intelligent of modern oriental travellers,- "amidst all the changes of government and religion, are still the same. They are living impressions from an original mould; and, at every step, some object, some idiom, some dress, or some custom of common life, reminds the traveller of antient times; and confirms, above all, the beauty, the accuracy, and the propriety of the language and history of the Bible.” Morier's Second Journey through Persia. Pref. o. viii.

tory of the Israelites, as well as of the Moabites, Ammonites, Philistines, Egyptians, Assyrians, Medes, Babylonians, Persians, Arabians, Greeks, Romans, and other antient nations, is of the greatest importance to the historical interpretation of the Bible: for, as the Jewish people were connected with those nations, either in a hostile or in a pacific manner, the knowledge of their history, as well as of their customs, arts, and literature, becomes the more interesting; as it is well known that the Israelites, notwithstanding they were forbidden to have intercourse with the heathen, did nevertheless borrow and adopt some of their institutions. More particularly, regardless of the severe prohibitions against idolatry, how many idols did they borrow from the Gentiles at different times, previously to the great Babylonish captivity, and associate them in the worship of Jehovah! Their commercial intercourse with the Egyptians and Arabs, and especially with the Phoenicians, was very considerable and, at the same time, they were almost incessantly at war with the Philistines, Moabites, and other neighbouring nations, and afterwards with the Assyrians and Egyptians, until they were finally conquered, and carried into captivity by the Assyrians and Babylonians. Further, the prophets, in their denunciations or predictions, not only address their admonitions and threatenings to the Israelites and Jews, but also frequently accost foreign nations, whom they menace with destruction. The writings of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, contain very numerous predictions relative to the heathen nations, which would be utterly unintelligible without the aid of profane history. The same remark will apply to the divisions of time and forms of government that obtained at different periods, which cannot be ascertained from the perusal of the sacred writings merely.

In proportion, however, as the history of the antient nations of Asia becomes necessary to the interpretation of the Bible, it is to be regretted that it is for the most part involved in so much obscurity and confusion as to require no small labour before we can extricate it from the trammels of fable, and arrive at any thing like certainty. As the histories of antient Egypt have perished, with the exception of a few fragments preserved in the writings of Josephus, Eusebius, and other authors, our knowledge of the earliest state of that country (which is sufficiently confused and intricate) can only be derived from Herodotus, Diodorus, and some other Greek writers, who cannot always be depended on. The writings of Sanchoniatho, with the exception of a few fragments, as well as the works of Histiæus, and other Phoenician historians, have long since perished: and, for our accounts of the Assyrians, recourse must chiefly be had to the Scriptures themselves, as no confidence whatever can be placed in the narrations of Ctesias, whose fidelity and veracity have justly been questioned by Aristotle, Strabo, and Plutarch. The history of the Ammonites, Moabites, Idumæans, Philistines, and other petty neighbouring nations, who had no historians of their own, is involved in qual obscurity for the little that is known of them, with certainty, e are exclusively indebted to the Holy Scriptures.

The sources, therefore, of that historical knowledge, which is so essential to an interpreter of the sacred writings, are, in the first place, the Old and New Testaments, and next the works of Josephus and profane authors. It is however to be observed, that where the latter speak of the Jews, they wilfully misrepresent them, as is done by Justin and Tacitus. With a view to reconcile these various contradictions, and to overcome the difficulties thus interposed by the uncertainty of antient profane history, various learned men have at different times employed themselves in digesting the remains of antient history, and comparing it with the Scriptures, in order to illustrate them as much as possible: and the Connections of Sacred and Profane History, by Drs. Shackford and Prideaux, Stackhouse's History of the Bible, and Dr. Lardner's Credibility of the Gospel History, are particularly worthy of notice.1

3. Intimately connected with history and chronology is antient Geography, especially that of Palestine and the neighbouring countries; the knowledge of which, it is universally confessed, tends to illustrate almost innumerable passages of Scripture. The principal sources of sacred geography are the Scriptures themselves, and the antient Greek and other writers, who have treated on the different countries mentioned in the Bible; and to these may be added the voyages and travels of Chardin, Seetzen, and others, mentioned in p. 549. who have explored the East, and whose narratives contain many very happy elucidations of the physical and political geography of the Bible. These sources have been diligently consulted by most of the learned men who have applied themselves to the illustration of this important topic. The principal works on sacred geography are those of Bochart, Michaelis, Reland, and Wells.

2

4. Next to History and Geography, Genealogy holds an important place in the study of the sacred writings. The evidences of Christianity cannot be correctly, if at all, understood, unless the genealogy of the Messiah, and his descent from Abraham and David, be distinctly traced. This is obvious from the prophecies, which, ages before his advent, determined the line of his descent; and left nothing to chance or imposture on the important subject of the promised seed, that, in the fulness of time, was to "bruise the serpent's head," and by his one oblation of himself, once offered, was to make a full and perfect atonement for the sins of the whole world. Many neat genealogical tables are to be found in some of the earlier and larger editions of the Bible; but it was not until lately that an attempt was made to bring together the various genealogies of Scripture in one comprehen

1 See an account of their valuable works infra, in the Appendix, No. V.

2 The result of M. Seetzen's Researches, which were undertaken under the patronage of the Palestine Association for investigating the present state of the Holy Land, was published in a thin quarto tract, intituled "A brief Account of the Countries adjoining the Lake of Tiberias, the Jordan, and the Dead Sea." Bath and London, 1810. Many places in Palestine, particularly boyond the Jordan, which are in a great degree unknown, are satisfactorily described in this little tract. 3 The writings of most of the above noticed travellers have been consulted for the Summary of biblical Geography and Antiquities, forming the third volume of this work.

sive view. This has been done in an elegantly executed work, entitled

Scripture Genealogy from Adam to Christ; exhibiting, in a series of thirty-six engraved tables, a distinct view of the nation, tribe, family, lineal descent, and posterity of every person mentioned in the Bible, so far as they can be traced from sacred or profane history. London, 1817. royal 4to.

The plan of this work is excellent; and so far as we can judge from an examination of several of the descents contained in it, we believe it is very correctly executed. To the name of each person mentioned in every table, chronological dates are affixed on the very respectable authorities of Usher and Blair, and likewise references to passages of Scripture where the respective names are to be found. Altogether, this is a very useful and agreeable companion to the biblical student.

5. Of equal importance with either of the preceding branches of knowledge is Natural History; by which alone many, otherwise obscure, passages of Scripture can be explained. Thus, frequent direct mention is made of animals, trees, plants, and precious stones; sometimes the Scripture expresses sentiments either in allusion to, or by metaphors taken from, some fact in natural history; and sometimes characters are described in allusion to natural objects; and without the knowledge of these, we cannot perceive the nature of the characters intended. Much information concerning this important topic, may be derived from the labours of the oriental travellers already mentioned, and especially those of Shaw, Russel, Hasselquist, Forskäl, and Niebuhr. The most successful investigations of this interesting topic are to be found in the writings of Bochart, Celsius, Scheuchzer, and Professor Paxton.

6. Lastly, in perusing the sacred volume, the attentive reader cannot fail to be struck with allusions to Philosophical Notions and Sects, as well as to certain branches of learning, which were cultivated by the nations or people therein mentioned: it is impossible fully to apprehend the force, propriety, and beauty of these allusions, without a knowledge of the notions, &c. referred to. A short sketch of the principal Jewish sects occurs in the third volume of this work; but the only writer, to the best of the author's recollection, who has discussed this subject in a separate treatise, is the learned and indefatigable Professor Buddeus, in his Introductio ad Historiam Philosophie Hebræorum, Hala, 1720, 8vo.; of whose labours he has availed himself. The philosophical notions which obtained among the Jews are also incidentally treated in most of the larger commentaries, as well as in most of those works, which profess to be Introductions to the Bible.1

SECTION VII.

OF THE SCOPE.

I. The Scope defined. — Importance of investigating the Scope of a Book or Passage of Scripture.-II. Rules for investigating it. 1. A CONSIDERATION of the Scope, or Design which the inspired author of any of the books of Scripture had in view, essen1 See a notice of these compilations, infra, in the Appendix, No. V.

tially facilitates the study of the Bible: because, as every writer had some design which he proposed to unfold, and as it is not to be supposed that he would express himself in terms foreign to that design, it therefore is but reasonable to admit, that he made use of such words and phrases as were every way suited to his purpose. To be acquainted, therefore, with the scope of an author, is to understand the chief part of his book. The scope, it has been well observed, is the soul or spirit of a book; and, that being once ascertained, every argument and every word appears in its right place, and is perfectly intelligible but, if the scope be not duly considered, every thing becomes obscure, however clear and obvious its meaning may really be.1

The scope of an author is either general or special; by the former we understand the design which he proposed to himself in writing his book; by the latter, we mean that design which he had in view, when writing particular sections, or even smaller portions, of his book or treatise.

The means, by which to ascertain the scope of a particular seetion or passage, being nearly the same with those which must be applied to the investigation of the general scope of a book, we shall briefly consider them together in the following observations.

II. The Scope of a book of Scripture, as well as of any particular section or passage, is to be collected from the writer's express mention of it, from its known occasion, from some conclusion expressly added at the end of an argument; from history, from attention to its general tenor, to the main subject and tendency of the several topics, and to the force of the leading expressions; and especially from repeated, studious, and connected perusals of the book itself.

1. When the scope of a whole book, or of any particular portion of it, is expressly mentioned by the sacred writer, it should be carefully observed.

Of all criteria this is the most certain, by which to ascertain the scope of a book. Sometimes it is mentioned at its commencement, or towards its close, and sometimes it is intimated in other parts of the same book, rather obscurely perhaps, yet in such a manner that a diligent and attentive reader may readily ascertain it. Thus the scope and end of the whole Bible, collectively, is contained in its manifold utility, which St. Paul expressly states in 2 Tim. iii. 16, 17. and also in Rom. xv. 4. In like manner, the royal author of Ecclesiastes announces pretty clearly, at the beginning of his book, the subject he intends to discuss, viz. to show that all human affairs are vain, uncertain, frail, and imperfect; and, such being the case, he proceeds to inquire, What profit hath a man of all his labour which

1 "How unfair, how irrational, how arbitrary, is the mode of interpretation which many apply to the word of God? They insulate a passage; they fix on a sentence; they detach it from the paragraph to which it belongs, and explain it in a sense dictated only by the combination of the syllables or the words, in themselves considered. If the word of God be thus dissected or tortured, what language may it not seem to speak, what sentiments may it not appear to countenance, what fancy may it not be made to gratify? But would such a mode of interpretation be tolerated by any living author? Would such a method be endured in commenting on any of the admired productions of classical antiquity? Yet in this case it would be comparatively harmless, although utterly indefensible: but who can calculate the amount of injury which may be sustained by the cause of revealed truth, if its pure streams be thus defiled, and if it be contaminated even at the very fountainhead." Rev. H. F. Burder's Sermon on the Duty and Means of ascertaining the genuine Sense of the Scriptures, p. 21. 70

VOL. II.