duties shall be repaid as drawback if the re-exportation be made within two years of the date of importation. Similarly, drawback is allowed on goods exported to another Customs port and thence reexported, if this is done within three years of first importation.

Transhipment: Section 128.-The Customs collector may, on application by the owner of any goods imported and specially and distinctly manifested at the time of importation as for transhipment to some other Customs or foreign port, grant leave to tranship the same without payment of the duty (if any) leviable at the port of transhipment. A Customs officer shall superintend the removal of such goods from vessel to vessel.

Sections 204, 205.-Rules made (or cancelled) under the Sea Customs Act shall be notified in the official gazette, and thereupon have the force of law.

Indian Merchandise Marks Act, 1889 (as amended).—Trademarks include those which are registered in England and those which, whether registered or not, are protected in any British possession or foreign state to which the British law is by Order in Council made applicable. In India no law requires the registration of trade-marks, nor is it the usual practice to register them, but any possessor of a trade-mark may register it at the office of the Registrar of Assurances.

According to the above Act, a mark used for denoting that goods are the manufacture or merchandise of a particular person is called a trade-mark, and a mark used for denoting that movable property belongs to a particular person is called a property-mark. Whoever marks any case, package, or other receptacle containing goods (or movable property) in a manner reasonably calculated to cause a belief that they are the manufacture or merchandise (or property) of a person of whom they are not, is said to use a false trade (or property) mark, and is under pain of fine or imprisonment. Similar penalties are inflicted for counterfeiting any trade-mark or propertymark, or for making a false mark on any receptacle containing goods. A false trade description is one materially untrue, and includes every alteration of a trade description by addition, effacement, or otherwise. A trade description means any indication as to number, quantity, measure, gauge, or weight of any goods; as to the country in which, or the time at which, any goods were made or produced; as to the mode of manufacturing or producing any

goods; as to the material they are composed of; as to any goods being the subject of an existing patent, privilege, or copyright; and the use of any numeral, word, or mark which, according to the custom of the trade, is commonly taken to indicate any of the above matters. The use of a trade description in a way reasonably calculated to lead persons to believe that the goods are the manufacture or merchandise of some other person than of him whose they really are is a false trade description. This includes the application to goods of any false name or initials. A trade description denoting that the lengths of goods are greater than they are is deemed false. A person applies a trade description who applies it to the goods themselves, or to any covering, label, reel, or other thing in or with which the goods are exposed for sale or any purpose of trade or manufacture, who places, encloses, or annexes any such goods in, with, or to any covering, etc., or who uses a trade description in a manner calculated to mislead. A trade description is applied whether it is woven, impressed, or otherwise worked into, or annexed, or affixed to the goods or any covering, etc. The term 'covering' includes any stopper, cask, bottle, vessel, box, cover, case, capsule, frame, or wrapper, while 'label' includes any band or ticket. The penalty for applying a false trade description is fine or imprisonment. Goods with false trade or property marks or trade descriptions may be forfeited.

In the case of goods brought in by sea, evidence of the port of shipment shall be prima facie evidence of the country of production. The Governor-General in Council may provide for the limits of variation as to number, measure, weight, etc., which are to be recognised by the criminal courts as permissible. In the general instructions for the guidance of Customs officers, the following points may be noted. Labels or tickets applied to boxes, cartons, parcels, or other packages, manifestly intended only to enable dealers and others to identify the articles, and not to attract the eye of the purchaser, should not be treated as trade descriptions ; but this rule does not apply to a mark or description on the goods themselves, or to a description of quality, or one containing the name of a place, country, manufacturer, or trader, or to a trade-mark. Goods manufactured on the Continent of Europe are to be detained if the manufacturer's name and trade description are in English, unless the name and description are accompanied

with the name of the country of manufacture. Customs officers should detain any goods produced or manufactured beyond the limits of the United Kingdom or of British India which are marked with British or British-Indian names or trade-marks, or so described as to indicate that the goods were produced in those countries, unless such description is accompanied with the name, in conspicuous letters, of the country of manufacture.

pp. 62, 63.)

(See also

In the ten years to March 31, 1900, about 41 per cent. of the goods detained under the Act were detained owing to the application of false trade-marks or false trade descriptions, 27 per cent. because the country of origin was either not stated or was falsely stated, 32 per cent. for infringement of the provisions as to conspicuous stamping of the length, etc., of piece-goods. Detained goods are generally released on payment of a fine, confiscation being rare.

The Petroleum Act, 1886 (as amended). -Petroleum includes liquids known as rock oil, Rangoon oil, Burma oil, kerosine, paraffin oil, mineral oil, petroline, gasoline, benzol, benzoline, and benzine; any inflammable liquid made from petroleum, coal, schist, shale, peat, or other bituminous substance, or from any product of petroleum; and any liquid or viscous mixture having in its composition any of the liquids aforesaid; but it does not include any oil used ordinarily for lubricating purposes, and having its flashing-point at or above 200° Fahr. 'Dangerous petroleum' is that which has its flashing-point below 76°; but when petroleum on board a ship is declared by the master or by the consignee of the cargo to be of one uniform quality, the petroleum shall not be deemed dangerous if the samples selected have their flashing points, on an average, at or above 73°, and if no sample has its flashing point below 70°. Rules for determining at what ports and places petroleum may be discharged, and various conditions as to samples, storage, etc., are made by the governments of the provinces in which the ports are situated.

No Preferential Treatment.-In India, as in England, the fiscal system is established on a Free Trade basis. There are no bounties to home producers, and no special railway rates or similar advantages are granted for the encouragement of particular home industries.

CHAPTER VII.

COMMUNICATIONS.

Railways-Mileage of chief lines-Gross earnings-Trunk lines-Passenger fares and goods rates-Rivers-Roads-Canals-Tramways-Postal facilities-Telegraphs.

Railways. By far the most important means of communication in India now are the railways. They are the chief products of British capital and enterprise in India. The mileage of the principal railways open for traffic at the end of 1900 was as follows:

Miles.

North-Western

...

...

3,608

Bombay, Baroda, and Central India, and Rajputana

Some of the above are, strictly speaking, systems of railways including many different lines. The great trunk lines are mostly of 5 feet 6 inches (or standard) gauge. Most of the others are of metre gauge, though a few have a still narrower gauge. The greater part of the lines belong to the State, but many of these are worked through the agency of companies. Some lines belong to Native States.

The gross railway traffic earnings have been as follows:

A great trunk line runs north-west from Calcutta to Delhi and Peshawar, having branches to Bombay from Allahabad and from Agra, and to Karachi from Lahore. The distance from Calcutta to Bombay is 1,400 miles viâ Allahabad and Jubbulpore, and 1,280 miles viâ Asansol and Nagpur. From Calcutta to Karachi is a distance of 1,900 miles. Railway communication between Calcutta and Madras was completed in 1900. There is direct communication (800 miles) between Bombay and Madras. Rangoon, to which there is no railway from India proper, is a distance of 800 miles by steamer from Calcutta.

The passenger fares in India are about 1d. (2 cents) to 14d. (3 cents) per mile first-class, and d. to d. (1 cent to 12 cents) second-class. There are third and fourth classes used by the natives at very low rates. The maximum goods rates vary from about ąd. (1 cents) per ton per mile, to about 24d. (4 cents) per ton per mile according to the class of goods, plus terminal charges, on the State lines. The rates on other lines are usually somewhat higher.

Rivers. Four great rivers, the Indus, the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Irrawaddy, with their tributaries, constitute the chief means of inland navigation. They are especially useful for the transportation of cheap and bulky staples and for slow subsidiary traffic. The Indus carries produce from the Southern Punjab and Sind, and Karachi is its port. The Brahmaputra, with its tributary, the Surma, is the great channel for conveying the produce of