he re-established the Jews in all their municipal privileges, allowed them full right of citizenship in the Roman states, with power to hold houses and lands; he restored their synagogues and burial-grounds, imposing on them only a very moderate tribute, and promising them exemption for the future from all arbitrary exactions. Subsequent popes revoked the tolerant edicts of Sixtus, but they did not revive the cruel code of Gregory XIII., and in general the Jews have been permitted to enjoy greater freedom and to hold their property with greater tranquillity in the papal states, than in most other countries of Christendom. Hence while the Spanish Jews generally favored the reformation, those of Italy regarded the progress of protestant opinion with complete indifference, and sometimes with avowed hostility.

In the tenth and eleventh centuries, most of the great German cities had among their inhabitants numerous Jews, wealthy, intelligent, and polished in their manners, but their prosperity was at all times at the mercy of their rulers, and it was only by means of their purchased and precarious protection that even their lives were secure. At length arose the crusading spirit, and the Jews in Germany, to the number of many thousands, were its first victims. Again the fanatics who were preparing to march to the third crusade (A. D. 1188), butchered all the Jews they met with in Germany and Italy, and similar barbarities were exercised in this and other countries, so that the annihilation of the devoted race seemed inevitable; but this, like other storms, passed away. After a while the Jews again arose from the dust, some returned to their ancient habitations, and others pushed forward into the then almost unknown regions of Poland, where they at length became, and still continue, a very influential part of the population.

At what period the Jews first reached Britain does not distinctly appear; but in the eighth century we find them reckoned among the property of the Anglo-Saxon kings, who seem to have exercised absolute power over both their lives and goods. In this state they remained under the Norman princes and the early Plantagenets, as is sufficiently testified by their butchery in the reign of Richard I.; the conduct of John, who drew out a tooth daily till he obtained a large sum of money from a rich Jew; the enormous fines levied on them by Henry III.; and their expulsion by Edward I. (A. D. 1290), after the confiscation of all their property. The conduct of the monarchs was of course imitated by the nobles to the extent of their power, and the hatred of all classes was excited by marvellous stories of the crucifixion of Christian children, the profanation of the sacraments, and other improbable outrages, of which they were said, but never proved, to be guilty.

As the Arabs lost their hold on Spain the Jews found themselves exposed to all the horrors of persecution. The inquisition was introduced, and after great numbers had been burnt, all who refused to become Christians were expelled the kingdom, being allowed to retain only their moveable property (A. D. 1492); their number is said to have exceeded 800,000, and they chiefly took refuge in Africa and Turkey. They were treated in a similar manner in Portugal. But it soon appeared that Judaism, though suppressed, was by no means extinguished in the peninsula, and the severity of the inquisition was

then exercised upon the nominal Christians; such was the case also in Italy. Thus persecuted in every country under the influence of the see of Rome, the Jews at the era of the reformation eagerly flocked toward the rising protestant states, where they were at least sure of personal safety. This was more especially the case in Holland, where they were equitably treated, and where they are now exceedingly

numerous.

Although no repeal of the edict for their banishment had taken place, the Jews entered into some negotiations with Oliver Cromwell for their return to England, but which do not appear to have led to any result. At the time of the restoration they came in, in small numbers, without exciting any particular notice, and have ever since remained unmolested. In 1753, an act was passed to facilitate their naturalization, but it was speedily repealed, and though popular feeling is less strong at present on the subject, the attempt to place them upon the same footing as other British subjects, though several times made, has been unsuccessful.

In the course of the last and the present centuries the condition of the Jews in European countries has been greatly ameliorated. Maria Theresa of Austria, and, after her, most of the German states, have granted them equal privileges with Christians; in France they enjoy every civil right; in Poland they form the only middle class, and are found engaged in agriculture and manufactures; in Italy, Spain, and Portugal, they now reside unmolested, and in many of the British colonies (as Malta, Gibraltar, and Jamaica), they are among the principal merchants and traders. Indeed, Russia is the only civilized state where they are now subject to anything like their former restrictions, or are looked upon with much of the antipathy of former days. In Mohammedan countries, however, they are still an obnoxious sect, against whom the most improbable charges are readily credited, a circumstance frequently taken advantage of by the local governors.

As might be expected with regard to a people so widely scattered, the most contradictory statements of the number of the Jews have been made, few of them being anything more than mere conjecture. The most probable statement seems to be that of the Weimar Almanac, which gives a total of about 3,200,000, reckoning near 2,000,000 in Europe, 740,000 in Asia, 500,000 in Africa, and 5,000 in America.

CHAPTER XV.

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

SECTION I-Colonial History.

SEVERAL unsuccessful attempts to plant colonies within the limits of the United States were made in the sixteenth century; but no permanent settlement was effected until the beginning of the seventeenth. Before the close of that century, however, all the colonies composing the original thirteen states were established except one, that of Georgia. In the reign of Elizabeth of England, the whole country between the thirty-fourth and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude, received the name of Virginia, in honor of the queen. In the next reign it was granted by royal charter to two companies formed for the purpose of settling it, the southern portion, called South Virginia, to the London company, and the northern, called North Virginia, to the Plymouth company.

In 1607, one hundred and fifteen years from the discovery of San Salvador by Columbus, the first permanent settlement was made at Jamestown under the auspices of the London company: and thus commenced the planting of the colony of Virginia.

In 1613 the settlement of New York was begun by the Dutch, on the island of New York, then called Manhattan. The same year, a naval force from Virginia compelled the Dutch to acknowledge the sovereignty of the king of England: but it was not until 1664 that the colony was finally conquered and occupied by the English.

In 1620 the colony of Plymouth was planted by English independents, who had for some years been settled in Holland. Two unsuccessful attempts had been previously made to form settlements in New England, one by the Plymouth company in 1607, at the mouth of the Kennebec river; the other, a little later by the celebrated Capt. John Smith, the father of the Virginia colony.

In 1628 the Massachusetts colony was established by a company under a grant of lands from the Plymouth company. The first settlement was at Salem. Shortly after Charlestown, Boston, and the towns adjacent, were settled. In 1692, the Plymouth colony was incorporated with that of Massachusetts. Up to this time it had remained a voluntary association, governed by regulations made by the settlers among themselves.

In 1623, the settlement of New Hampshire was begun at the mouth of the Piscataqua river, and subsequently at Dover, Portsmouth, and Exeter. These three settlements continued distinct and independent governments until 1641, when they united in coming under the govern

ment of Massachusetts. In 1679 New Hampshire was by a royal ordinance erected into a separate province.

New Jersey was first settled by the Danes about the year 1624; and shortly after some Dutch families planted themselves in the vicinity of New York. In 1655, Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of NewYork, conquered the country, which was finally occupied by the English on the conquest of New York in 1664.

Delaware was first occupied by the Swedes in 1627. The Dutch, however, disputed the possession of it with them, from the first, and in 1655 obtained and held it until it fell into the power of the English along with New York and New Jersey in 1664. Most of the Swedes, after the Dutch conquest, left the country.

Maine was settled in 1639. The first town founded was York. This province was united to Massachusetts in 1652, and so continued until 1820.

Maryland was settled in 1634 by English Roman catholics, under a patent to Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, by whom a colony was planted at the mouth of the Potomac, at a place called St. Mary.

The first settlement in Connecticut was begun in 1635 at Hartford and its vicinity, by a company from Massachusetts. In 1638, New Haven was settled, and with the towns around it was called the colony of New Haven; but in 1662, it was united to the colony of Connecticut. The settlement of Rhode Island dates from 1636, when Roger Williams, banished from Massachusetts on account of his religious principles (which were those of the baptists), established the town of Providence. Rhode Island itself was occupied in 1638, by persons also driven from Massachusetts by religious persecution. Roger Williams was a man far in advance of his time. To him belongs the eminent glory of giving the first practical example of religious toleration.. The Providence and Rhode Island colonies were politically united in

1644.

W

North Carolina was occupied by settlers from Virginia between the years 1640 and 1650. They established themselves on lands north of Albemarle sound. It became a distinct colony in 1729.

In 1670 the settlement of South Carolina was begun at Port Royal; but the colony removed the next year, and founded a town which was called Charleston; but in 1680 this place was abandoned, and the settlement of the present city of Charleston commenced.

Pennsylvania was settled in 1682, under a royal grant to William Penn. This colony had a more rapid and prosperous growth than any. of the other colonies, owing partly to the later date of its settlement when the obstacles to colonization had become less, and partly to the mildness and equity of its laws and administration.

Georgia was not colonized till 1733. It was then settled under a patent granted to twenty-one trustees, for the purpose of giving land gratuitously to indigent subjects of Great Britain. Liberal donations were made by benevolent persons to defray the expense of transporting and providing for the settlers. The first place founded was Savannah.

The limits of this sketch will not permit any details in regard to the history of the separate colonies, the dates of whose settlement have

now been given. A few matters of more general interest can only be. noted.

In 1643, the colonies of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven, formed a union by articles of confederation, under the style of "The United Colonies of New England." To protect themselves against the Indians, and against the claims and encroachments of the Dutch of New Netherlands (as New York was then called), were the motives of this confederation. Rhode Island, refusing to merge her political existence under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, was excluded from the union. The conquest of New York, New Jersey, and Delaware, in 1664, brought the whole country, from Maine to Carolina, under the dominion of the English.

In 1675 New England was afflicted by a memorable war with the Indians, called King Philip's war, from the name of an Indian sachem of great abilities, who combined the Indian tribes against the English. The capture and death of Philip the following year put an end to the war, in which New England suffered the loss of six hundred men, the flower of her strength, twelve or thirteen towns destroyed, and six hundred dwellings consumed.

In 1676 a rebellion broke out in Virginia, known as "Bacon's rebellion" from the name of the leader, an able and ambitious man, who seized, and for some months maintained, the supreme authority. His death put an end to the civil war. The causes of this rebellion were oppressive restrictions on commerce, and heavy taxes imposed by Governor Berkley.

During the reign of James II. the New England colonies were severely oppressed. The king revoked the charters and assumed the government into his own hands, appointing Sir Edmund Andros govUnder his arbitrary and tyrannical administration the colonies. suffered until the accession of William and Mary in 1689.

ernor.

The news of the abdication of James, and the accession of William and Mary to the English throne was the signal for a revolution in New England. Sir Edmund Andros was deposed and imprisoned. Connecticut and Rhode Island resumed their charters and were allowed to retain them. Massachusetts obtained a new charter, in some respects preferable to its former one.

In New York, where Sir Edmund Andros had formerly been the tyrannical governor, and where his successors had generally followed his example, the discontents of the people led likewise to a revolution, which at length resulted in a constitution; but the collisions between the colonial assemblies and the royal governors retarded the restoration. of peace and prosperity to the colony.

It will be proper here to advert to the forms of government which prevailed in the several colonies. These were of three sorts-the. charter; the royal; and the proprietary.

1. The CHARTER governments. These were confined to New England. By their charters the people of these colonies were expressly entitled to all the privileges of British born subjects; and invested with the legislative, judicial, and executive powers of government. They chose their governors and legislative bodies, and established their own