that rise up against thee, to be smitten before thy face; they shall come out against thee one way, and flee before thee seven ways.' Had it not been for the general immorality of the Poles, we apprehend all the powers of Europe could never have subjugated them. Of all the German nations, says Tacitus, the Chaucians are, beyond all question, the most respectable. Their grandeur rests upon the surest foundation, the love of justice; wanting no extension of territory, free from avarice and ambition, remote and happy, they provoke no wars, and never seek to enrich themselves by rapine and depredation. Their importance among the nations round them is undoubtedly great, but the best evidence of it is, that they have gained nothing by injustice. Loving moderation, yet uniting to it a warlike spirit, they are ever ready, in a just cause, to unsheath the sword. Their armies are soon in the field. In men and horses, their resources are great, and even in profound tranquillity their fame is never tarnished.-(Manner's Germ.)

13. Very many examples might be furnished, evincing that the issue of battles is determined more by the character than the number of the combatants. Without adverting to the Bible, we may mention as instances of this, in ancient history, the defence of the Pass of Thermopyla by Leonidas; and in modern times, at the Battle of Vienna, 70,000 men under Sobieski defeated 200,000 Turks.-The following account of the close of this great battle, is so animated, that we shall make no apology for inserting it :-Five o'clock p. m. had sounded, says Salvandy, and Sobieski had given up for the day all hope of the grand struggle; when the provoking composure of Kara Mustapha, whom he espied in a splendid tent tranquilly taking coffee with his two sons, roused him to such a pitch, that he instantly gave orders for a general assault. It was made simultaneously on the wings and the centre. He made towards the Pacha's tent, bearing down all opposition, and repeating with a loud voice-" Not unto us, Lord God of Hosts-not unto us, but unto thy name, give the praise!" He was soon recognized by Tartar and Cossack, who had so often beheld him blazing in the view of the Polish chivalry; they drew back while his name rapidly passed from one extremity to the other of the Ottoman lines, to the dismay of those who had refused to believe him present. "Allah!" said the Tartar khan, "but the wizard is with them, sure enough!" At that moment, the hussars, raising their national cry of "God for Poland," cleared a ditch which would long have arrested the infantry, and dashed into the deep ranks of the enemy. They were a gallant band; their appearance almost justified the saying of one of their kings,-" that if the sky itself were to fall, they

The name given him by the Tartars, after a series of extraordinary victories had fully impressed them with a belief in his supernatural powers.

would bear it up on the points of their lances." The shock was rude and for some minutes dreadful, but the valour of the Poles, still more the reputation of their leader, and more than all the finger of God, routed these immense hosts: they gave way on every side, the khan was borne along with the stream to the tent of the now despairing vizir.-" Canst thou not help me?" said Kara Mustapha to the brave Tartar; "then I am lost indeed!" "The Polish king is there!" replied the other, "I know him well. Did I not tell thee, that all we had to do was to get away as quick as possible?"—(Foreign Quarterly Review, No. 14.) 14. The rights of a nation may be invaded as a whole, or only as to some of its sons. If one nation having received no injury invades another, the latter is obviously bound to repel such lawless invasion. If one nation appropriates to itself a greater quantity of land than it can reasonably require; this being an invasion of the rights of mankind in general, is, as we have intimated, a just ground for war: though, of course, one nation is not warranted in attacking another, if the quantity appropriated is inconsiderable. With regard to a foreign nation, exciting or assisting to maintain an internal opposition against the government of a country; where the constitution and laws are unrighteous, the great body of a nation allowing a few to oppress them ;-such opposition may prevail to a considerable extent, but be put an end to by the establishment of a government and laws in accordance with the divine law. Where such are established, the attempts of foreigners to induce opposition will ordinarily be altogether unavailing ; thus in either case there appear no legitimate grounds for war. As to wrongs committed on some of a nation's sons in foreign climes, the aggressor is, of course, bound to make restitution; and the aggrieved have a right to require the assistance of their own nation to obtain it. If, however, the foreign one refuses it, it seems scarcely possible to make it a legitimate ground of war; it must be vastly preferable for a powerful nation to indemnify the aggrieved, than to involve whole nations in war. As the words of our Lord to his Hebrew hearers,-('Ye have heard that it hath been said, an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth; but I say unto you, That ye resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also; and if any man will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also; and whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain ;')-are applicable between individuals, they must be much more so between aggregates of individuals or nations; the consequence of nations falling out, being so much more important, than for individuals to do so. A righteous nation need not apprehend, that from submitting to an injury of the kind we are considering, it will be thought incapable of de

fending its own rights; as the contrary will be abundantly obvious, when it is compelled to enter into a just war.

15. A caravan of three ambassadors, and a hundred and fifty merchants, says Bell, sent by Zingis, to open a commercial intercourse with the most powerful of the Moslem princes, was arrested and murdered at Ótrar by the command of Mahommed himself, or as others relate, by order of Gayer Khan the goverThe number of merchants thus massacred, is stated by some at 450. Only one escaped, to carry back the relation of the horrid deed to the Mongol emperor; who sent three ambassadors to the sultan to demand satisfaction; which was not only denied, but even the ambassadors themselves were murdered. It was not till after this denial, and fresh murder of persons, whose legantine character is held sacred among all civilized nations; till after he had prayed, and fasted, and wept three successive days on a mountain, that Zingis had resource to arms, and invaded Western Asia. Mankind have been doomed to suffer much from the ambition, the ingratitude, the injustice, the cruelty, and the oppression of princes; but no where in all the page of recorded events, did the human race suffer so much as did Western Asia from the conduct of Mahommed. (11.)-(Bell's Geography, Glasgow, 1831.)

16. When a country, with a righteous constitution and laws, and the people acting conformably thereto, has repelled a lawless invader, it may exact pecuniary compensation for any injury it has sustained. Where a powerful enemy violates the rights of its neighbours, and one or more of them, in repelling the attack, carry the war into the territory of the aggressor;-if the making peace would probably only afford an opportunity for a renewed attack, as one means of weakening the enemy, its fortresses may be destroyed; though this is obviously an ex

treme case.

17. Maritime powers allowing individuals to send vessels of war to sea for the purpose of making captures, seems a very improper mode of warfare. Vessels belonging to those individuals who were wholly averse to the war may be captured, and thus a great injustice is done to them. Vessels of war equipped by a government may perhaps capture merchantmen. But this is one of the necessary consequences of hostilities. The policy of privateering, says Mr. M'Culloch, is very questionable. It seems to be a remnant of that species of private war exercised by all individuals in early ages, but which gradually disappears as society advances. In wars carried on by land, the property of the peaceable inhabitants who take no part in the operations of the armies, is uniformly protected; and it is difficult to discover any solid grounds why the same rule should not be followed at sea. Privateers rarely attack ships of war.

Their

object is merely to plunder and destroy merchantmen. They cause an infinite deal of mischief to individuals, and aggravate all the miseries of war without having the slightest influence on the result of the contest. Experience has also shown that it is not possible, whatever precautions may be adopted, to prevent the grossest abuses from being perpetrated by privateers. The wish to amass plunder, is the only principle by which they are actuated; and such being the case, it would be idle to suppose that they should be very scrupulous about abstaining from excesses. A system of this sort, if it be ever useful, can be so only to nations who have little trade; and who may expect to enrich themselves during war, by fitting out privateers to plunder the merchant ships of their enemies. In all other cases it seems to be productive only of mischief; though it is, of course, most injurious to those states that have the greatest mercantile navy. Instead, therefore, of encouraging the practice of privateering, we think that a due regard to the rights and interests of humanity, would suggest to the great powers the expediency of abolishing it altogether.-(Dict. Art. Privateers.)

18. The total subjugation of one nation by another, appears in no case allowable, as no lawful object would hereby be obtained. In the most extreme case, therefore, that the subjection of a nation can be supposed allowable, the conquered country can be held possession of but for a very limited time as whatever may be the desert of any of the adult males who took an active part in the war, the youths contemporary with them and the unborn, are not to be punished for that of which they were innocent. And as the conqueror, it is to be supposed, would always have the means of repelling a fresh attack, the holding a conquered country in subjection to prevent this, would make no addition to the conqueror's means, and in a slight degree only curtail those of the enemy. If during the prosecution of a war, a portion only of an enemy's territories is taken possession of, it should be given up at the termination of hostilities. When an aggrieved party becomes the conqueror, it is bound at the end of the war not to require unfair terms from the enemy. And as war, under its most favourable aspect, is one of the most tremendous scourges that can afflict mankind, it obviously should never be entered upon, until after the most strenuous and repeated efforts to preserve peace, have proved utterly ineffectual. When hostilities are unavoidable, every individual of the aggrieved nation should use his earnest endeavour, that in their prosecution and all other matters connected with them, every thing should be done to the glory of God. The Hottentots seem to have had an excellent plan for sparing the effusion of human blood. Two nations fought one battle, and this determined the whole affair. This is yet better effected by single combat. The best of all modes is to leave off fighting altogether. Nothing

will tend to this great end more than the rights of men of the same nation, and of different nations, being properly understood and respected. Let us hope that the time is not far distant when both civil and foreign war will be unknown; and men 'shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks: nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more:' the motto of all countries being, 'GLORY TO GOD IN THE HIGHEST, AND ON EARTH PEACE GOOD WILL TOWARD MEN.'

CHAP. XIV.

NATIONAL CHURCHES.

1. By these we mean such as are supported by unlawful governments. The ministers are therefore not appointed by those over whom they preside. They are consequently supported by compulsory taxation.

2. The right maintenance of families, and therefore of nations, being greatly concerned in the duties peculiarly due to the Most High, we may first consider what is incumbent on every man in his private capacity. There were certain practices among the Hebrews. (Ex. xxiii. 14.)-Num. xv. 37 to 40.-Mat. vi. 16 to 18.-Deut. vi. 7 to 9.) Áll such might be beneficial, if adopted in our times. Strict personal religion, or the humbly endeavouring to walk in all the commandments and ordinances of the Lord blameless, is obviously incumbent on all men; with a due anxiety, as far as lies in them, to maintain it in their amilies, and with proper discretion among their connections: Not forsaking the assembling of themselves together as the manner of some is, but exhorting one another; and taking especial care to elect a faithful minister of Christ; that as far as can be attained through his instrumentality, they may have, in a high degree, 'righteousness, and peace, and joy, in the Holy Ghost.' An eminent part of men's duty, also, is, to distribute as extensively as possible, even to the remotest bounds of the habitable globe, the bread of life to their poorer or more ignorant brethren. For if it be asked,-If the man who hath this world's goods, and seeth his brother have need, and shutteth up his bowels of compassion from him, how dwelleth the love of God in him? how incumbent must it be, besides ministering to the corporeal wants of our brethren, to do so to their spiritual ones: every man in existence, it must be remembered, being in the sight of Heaven