none was judged so proper to succeed him as Cyprian. His first episcopal engagement was to draw up a piece De Habitu Virginum, on the dress of young females; in which he inculcates many lessons of modesty and sobriety. In 249 Decius issued very severe edicts against the Christians; and in 250 the heathens, in the circus and amphitheatre of Carthage, insisted upon Cyprian's being thrown to the lions. Upon this he withdrew from Carthage, and wrote, in his retreat, some excellent letters to the Libellatici, or those pusillanimous Christians, who procured certificates of the heathen magistrates, to show that they had complied with the emperor's orders, in sacrificing to idols. At his return to Carthage he held several councils on the repentance of those who had fallen off during this persecution, and other points of discipline; he opposed the schemes of Novatus and Novatianus; and contended for the rebaptising of those who had been baptised by heretics. At last he died a martyr in the persecution under Valerian and Gallienus, in 258. Cyprian wrote eighty-one letters, and several treatises. The best editions of his works are those of Pamelius in 1568; of Rigaltius in 1648; and of Oxford in 1682.

CYPRINUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fishes belonging to the order of abdominales. The monta is toothless; there are three rays in the guls; the body is smooth and white; and the belly fins have frequently nine rays. There are thirty-one species, principally distinguished by the number of rays in the vent-fin. The most remarkable are 1. C. alburnus, the bleak. These fish keep together in large shoals. At certain seasons they seem to be in great agonies: they tumble about near the surface of the water, and are incapable of swimming far from the place; but ia about two hours they recover and disappear. Fish thus affected, the Thames fishermen call mad bleaks. They seem to be troubled with a species of Gordius, or hair worm, which torments them so, that they often rise to the surface and die. The bleak seldom exceeds five or six inches in length. Artificial pearls are made of the scales of this fish, and probably also with those of the dace. They are beaten into a fine powder, then diluted with water, and introduced into a thin glass hubble, which is afterwards filled with wax. The French were the inventors of this art. 2. C. auratus, the golden fish, a small fish domesticated by the Chinese, and generally kept for ornament in their courts and gardens. They breed them in small ponds made for the purpose, in basins, and even in porcelain Vessels. This fish is no larger than our pilchard. The male is of a bright red color from the top of the head to the middle of the body: the rest is of a gold color: but it is so bright and splendid, that the finest gilding cannot approach it. The female is white: but its tail and half of its body resemble the lustre of silver. F. du Halde, however, observes, that a red and white color are not always the distinguishing marks of the male and female; but that the females are known by several white spots which are seen round the orifices that serve them as organs of hearing, and the tuales, by having these spots much brighter. Gold fish are light and lively; they love to sport on the

surface of the water, soon become familiarised, and may even be accustomed to come and receive their food on sounding a small rattle. Great care is necessary to preserve them; for they are extremely delicate, and sensible of the least injuries of the air: a loud noise, such as that of thunder or cannons, a strong smell, a violent shaking of the vessel, or a single touch, will oft-times destroy them. These fish live with little nourishment: those small worms which are engendered in the water, or the earthy particles that are mixed with it, being sufficient for their food. In winter they are removed from the court to a warm chamber, where they are kept, generally shut up in a porcelain vessel. During that season they receive no nourishment; however, in spring, when they are carried back to their former basin, they sport and play with the same strength and liveliness as they did the preceding year. In warm countries these fish multiply fast, provided care be taken to collect their spawn, which floats on the water, and which they almost entirely devour. This spawn is put into a particular vessel exposed to the sun, and preserved there until vivified by the heat: gold-fish, however, seldom multiply when they are kept in close vases, because they are then too much confined. In order to render them fruitful, they must be put into reservoirs of considerable depth, in some places at least, and which are constantly supplied with fresh water. They were first introduced into England about A. D. 1691; but were not generally known till 1728, when a great number were brought over, and presented to Sir Matthew Dekker, and by him circulated round the neighbourhood of London, from whence they have been distributed to most parts of the country. 3. C. brama, the bream, is an inhabitant of lakes, or the deep parts of still rivers. It is a fish that is very little esteemed, being extremely insipid. 4. C. carpio, the carp. This was introduced into England about 1514, by Leonard Maschal. Russia wants these fish at this day. Sweden has them only in the ponds of people o fashion. They chiefly abound in the rivers and lakes of Polish Prussia, where they are sometimes taken of a vast size. They are there a great article of commerce, and sent in well-boats to Sweden and Russia. The merchants purchase them out of the waters of the noblesse of the country, who draw a good revenue from this article. They grow also to a very great size: some authors speak of carp 200 lbs. in weight, and five feet in length. They are prodigious breeders: the quanfity of roe has been sometimes found so great, that when taken out and weighed against the fish itself, the former has been found to preponderate. Irom the spawn of this fish caviare is made for the Jews, who hold the sturgeon in abhorrence. The carp is extremely cunning, and is sometimes styled the river fox. They will sometimes leap over the nets, and escape that way; at other times they will immerse themselves so deep in the mud, as to let the net pass over them. They are also very shy of taking a bait; yet at the spawning time they are so simple as to suffer themselves to be tickled, handled, and caught by any body that will attempt it. This fish is apt to mix its milt with the roe of other fish; from

rations before Asterius and Minos, kings of Crete; that is, according to Sir Isaac Newton's computation, 2006 years before the Christian era. It was then so full of wood that it could not be tilled, and the Phoenicians first cut down that wood for melting copper, with which the island abounded; afterwards, when they began to sail without fear on the Mediterranean, that is, after the Trojan war, they built numerous vessels of this wood. But Josephus informs us, that the descendants of Chittim, the son of Javan, and the grandson of Japhet, were the original inhabitants of Cyprus. According to his account, Chittim, seeing his brother Tarshish settled in Cilicia, where he built the city of Tarsus, settled with his followers in this opposite island; and either he or his descendants laid the foundations of Citium, which, according to Ptolemy, was the most ancient city in the island. As Cyprus was too narrow to contain the great numbers who at tended him, he left here as many as might serve to people the country, and with the rest passed over into Macedon. Cyprus was divided among several petty kings till the time of Cyrus. He subdued them all; but left each in possession of his kingdom, obliging them only to pay him an annual tribute, and to send supplies of men, money, and ships, when required. The Cyprian princes lived thus subject to the Persians till the reign of Darius Hystaspis, when they attempted, but with little success, to shake off the yoke; their forces being entirely defeated, and themselves again obliged to submit. They made another more successful attempt about A. A. C. 357; but they could never become entirely independent. They submitted, it is probable, to Alexander the Great, though historians are silent as to this event. On his death, the dominion of Cyprus was disputed by Antigonus and Ptolemy. At last Antigonus prevailed, and the whole island submitted to him about A. A. C. 304. He and his son Demetrius kept possession of it for eleven years, when it was recovered by Ptolemy, and quietly possessed by him and his descendants till A. A. C. 53, when it was unjustly seized by the Romans. In the time of Augustus, it began to be ranked among the proconsular provinces, and to be governed by magistrates sent thither by the senate. In 648 it was conquered by the Saracens; but recovered by the Romans in 957. They held it, however, but for a very short time, and the barbarians kept possession of it till the time of the crusades. It was then reduced by Richard I. of England, who gave it to the princes of the Lusignan family, who held it till A. D. 1570. They divided it into twelve provinces, in each of which was a capital city, from which the province was denominated. So considerable was the island at this time, that besides the cities abovementioned, and others of less note, it contained 800 villages. In 1570 it was taken by the Turks, and it has ever since continued under their yoke.

Cyprus has no river, and the torrents that descend from the mountains in winter do not reach the sea in summer, but form unhealthy stagnant lakes and marshes in the low grounds. It is generally fertile, producing wine, oil, cotton, silk, and pasture; but has large tracts of fores. In minerals it is rich, having mines of

gold and silver, and yielding emeralds, rockcrystal, red jasper, agate, amianthus, terre d'ombre, and other minerals, besides the Paphian diamond. It has no wild animals but foxes and hares. The population is, according to Olivier, 60,000, half Greeks and half Turks; according to Malte Brun 83,000. Dr. Clarke says that its present state may be expressed in a few words. Agriculture neglected; inhabitants oppressed; population destroyed; pestiferous air; contagion; poverty; indolence; desolation.'

The bay of Salinas, between Cape Grego and Cape Tagista, or Chiti, is pointed out by the highest summit of the island, Mount Cius, or Rusie, being directly over it, whence it bears west. Larnaca, on the east shore of this bay, has a tolerable road even in winter, though exposed to the south-east and south. The town, which is a heap of ruins, is half a mile from the shore, on which is a suburb on the site of the ancient Citium: in the vicinity are many salt marshes, whence the name of the bay, which afford considerable quantities of salt, but render the air unhealthy. Salinas (Salamis) is at the head of the gulf; it has a citadel falling to ruin.

The Bay of Limasole, or Limisso, is sheltered on the west by point Della Gatta: the village at the head of the bay is supposed to stand on the site of Amathônte, and a league east of it are considerable ruins. Piscopia is a village east of the south point of the island, and in the most fertile part of it. On the west coast is Baffa, supposed to be on the site of Paphos: it is a small town with a fort and port for small vessels; the town is on an eminence one mile from the port, and is entirely inhabited by Greeks. Solea (Solo and Epeia) is on the north coast, as are Cerino (Ceronia), a village of 200 inhabitants with a castle in good order, and a small port within two rocks, but open to the north and unsafe in winter, Maceria (Macaria and Aphrodisum), and Artemisia.

The commerce of Cyprus is considerable, exporting of its own produce cotton, which is considered the best of the Levant, 5000 bags of 600 lbs. each, chiefly to Venice, Holland, and England; silk, 25,000 bags of 300 lbs. each; wool, 500 bags of 600 lbs. each; wine chiefly to Venice and Leghorn; coloquintida, 100 quintals, chiefly to Holland and Leghorn; laudanum, madder, chiefly to France; cochineal a small quantity; soda to Marseilles; turpentine to Venice; green earth for painters, and brown umber, chiefly to Holland; corn, though prohibited, finds its way out of the island; salt to Syria and Constantinople; carob beans, pitch, tar, and planks, in small quantities, and some manufactured silks and cottons. The exports are chiefly paid for in specie. About 600 European vessels are computed to visit the island annually.

Wine is the staple product of this island. Its grapes, yielding a juice which is almost a concentrated essence, are considered among the richest and most luscious in the world. The wines made from them strongly resemble Tokay, and, in the language of the east, are said to have power to restore health and youth to the most exhausted frames. They are kept in casks, without any other precaution to exclude the

air than that of placing a piece of sheet lead over the bung hole. At the age of forty years this noble beverage is supposed to be in perfection, and its qualities are then truly balsamic: All the valuable kinds are white, the red being merely used as vin du pays. The apricots of Cyprus are also delicious. Near Baffa is found an amianthus, or mineral cloth, peculiarly distinguished for its flexibility, whiteness, and delicate structure. Cyprus is likewise noted for the common Turkey manufactures of leather, carpets, and printed cottons. The first is remarkable for its brilliant and lively color. The carpets are of excellent workmanship; and, though barely large enough to cover an English hearth, bring from forty to fifty piastres a-piece. The cottons have the valuable quality of preserving their colors in washing; which, in fact, rather improves them. The principal towns are Nicotia, Famagusta, and Larnica, all situated in the south-east part of the island.

Of the appearance of the females of Cyprus, renowned from an early period of history, Dr. Clarke gives the following account:-'The interesting costume presented in the dress of the Cyprian ladies ought not to pass without notice. Their head apparel was precisely modelled after the kind of Calathus represented upon the Phoenician idols of the country, and upon Egyptian statues. This was worn by women of all ranks, from the wives of the consuls to their slaves. Their hair, dyed of a fine brown color, by means of a plant called Henna, hung hehind in numerous long straight braids; and, in some ringlets disposed near the face, were fastened blossoms of the jessamine, strung together, upon slips from leaves of the palm-tree, in a very curious and pleasing manner. Next to the Calmuck women, the Grecian are, of all others, best versed in cosmetic arts. They possess the valuable secret of giving a brown color to the whitest locks, and also tinge their eyebrows with the same hue; an art that would be highly prized by the hoary courtezans of London and of Paris. The most splendid colors are displayed in their habits; and these are very becoming to the girls of the island. The upper robe is always of scarlet, crimson, or green silk, embroidered with gold. Like other Greek women, they wear long scarlet pantaloons, fastened round the ancle, and yellow boots, with slippers of the same color. Around the neck, and from the head, were suspended a profusion of gold coins, chains, and other trinkets. About their waists they have a large belt or zone, fastened in front by two large and heavy polished brass plates. They endeavour to make the waist as long as possible, and the legs, consequently, short. Naturally corpulent, they take no pains to diminish the size of their bodies by lacing, but seem rather vain of their bulk, exposing their bosoms, at the same time, in a manner highly unbecoming. Notwithstanding the extraordinary pains they use to 'disfigure their natural beauty by all sorts of illselected ornaments, the women of Cyprus are handsomer than those of any other Grecian island. They have a taller and more stately figure; and the features, particularly of the women of Nicotia, are regular and dignified, ex

hibiting that elevated cast of countenance so universally admired in the works of Grecian artists. At present this kind of beauty seems peculiar to the women of Cyprus.'

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The Turkish governor resides at Nicotia; his appointment is renewed annually, and obtained by purchase. So that each succeeding ruler has only the one great point of his personal aggrandisement for a short period in view, and the permanent interests of the island are no topic of consideration with any of its masters. common type on the medals of this island is the temple of the Paphian goddess, as in the annexed figure; inscription, KYIIPION; sometimes it contains the name of their kings, and sometimes that of the emperors Augustus, Caligula, Claudius, Galba, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Trajan, Sept imius Severus, Julia, Caracalla, Geta, or Macrinus.

CYPRUS, KNIGHTS OF, an order instituted by Guy de Lusignan, titular king of Jerusalem, to whom Richard I. of England, after conquering Cyprus, made over his right.

CYRENAICA, an ancient kingdom of Africa, corresponding to the present kingdom and desert of Barca and Tripoli. It was originally inhabited by a number of barbarous nations, differing little from gangs of robbers. Afterwards some colonies from Greece settled in it, and Cyrenaica became so powerful a state, that it waged war with Egypt and Carthage, often with success. In the time of Darius Hystaspis, Arcesilaus, the reigning prince in Cyrenaica, was driven from the throne; on which his mother Pheretima applied for assistance to the king of Cyprus. Her son afterwards returning to Barca, was there assassinated together with his father-in-law. Pheretima, finding herself disappointed by the king of Cyprus, applied to Darius Hystaspis, and by the assistance of the Persians reduced Barca. Here she behaved with the utmost cruelty. Cyrenaica, however, seems to have remained free till the time of Alexander the Great, who conquered it along with Egypt. Soon after his death, the inhabitants recovered their liberty; but were in a short time reduced by Ptolemy king of Egypt. Under these kings it remained till Ptolemy Physcon made it over to his illegitimate son Apian, who, in the 658th year of Rome, left it by will to the Romans. The senate permitted all the cities to be governed by their own laws; and this immediately filled the country with tyrants, those who were most potent in every city or district endeavouring to assume the sovereignty of it. Thus the kingdom was thrown into great confusion; but Lucullus considerably restored the public tranquillity, during the first Mithridatic war. It was found impossible, however, totally to suppress these disturbances, till the country was reduced to the form of a Roman province, which happened about twenty years after the death of Apion A. A. C. 76. Upon a revolt, the city of Cyrene was ruined by the Romans; but they afterwards rebuilt it. In process of time it fell to the Arabs; and then to the Turks, who still retain it

CYRENAICS, a sect of ancient philosophers, so called from their founder Aristippus of Cyrene, a disciple of Socrates. The great principle of their doctrine was, that the supreme good of man in this life is pleasure; whereby they not only meant a privation of pain, and a tranquillity of mind, but an assemblage of all mental and sensual pleasures, particularly the last. Cicero makes frequent mention of Aristippus's school; and speaks of it as yielding debauchees. Three disciples of Aristippus, after his death, divided the sect into three branches, viz. the Hegesiac school, the Annicerian, and the Theodoran; from the names of their authors. Under this division it languished and sunk.

CYRENE, in ancient geography, the capital of Cyrenaica, and one of the five cities called Pentapolis, distant from Apollonia, its sea-port, ten miles, situated on a plain of the form of a table, according to Strabo. It is now called Caiboan.

CYRILL (St.), bishop of Jerusalem, succeeded Maximus in 350. He was afterwards deposed for selling the treasures of the church, and applying the money to the support of the poor during a great famine. Under Julian he was restored to his see, and firmly established in all his honors under Theodosius; in which he continued unmolested to his death in 386. The remains of this father consist only of twentythree catecheses, and one letter to the emperor Constantius.

CYRILL (St.), patriarch of Alexandria, succeeded Theophilus, his uncle, in 413. Scarcely was he installed, when he began to exert his authority with great vigor; and drove the Novatians and Jews from Alexandria, permitting their wealth and synagogue to be taken from them. This proceeding highly displeased Orestes, the governor. Upon which a civil war broke out between them; many tumults were raised and some battles fought in the very streets o. Alexandria. St. Cyrill also distinguished himself by his zeal against Nestorius bishop of Constantinople, who, in some of his homilies, had asserted that the Virgin Mary ought not to be called the mother of God. The dispute at first proved unfavorable to Cyrill, whose opinion was not only condemned, but himself deprived of his bishopric and thrown into prison. But he was soon after released, and gained a complete victory over Nestorius, who in 431 was deposed from his see of Constantinople. Cyrill returned to his see at Alexandria, where he died in 444. St. Cyrill also wrote against Theodorus of Mopsuesta, Diodorus of Tarsus, and Julian the Apostate. He composed commentaries on St. John's gospel, and wrote several other books. His works were published in Greek and Latin in 1638, in six volumes folio.

CYRUS THE GREAT, the founder of the united empire of the Medes and Persians. The two chief historians, who have written the life of Cyrus, are Herodotus and Xenophon; but their accounts of him are extremely different. The former tells us, that Astyages king of the Medes, dreaming that a vine sprung from the womb of his daughter Mandane, the branches whereof overshadowed all Asia, was told by the sooth

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sayers, that this portended the future power and greatness of a child who should be born of his daughter; and further, that this child should deprive him of his kingdom. Astyages, to prevent the accomplishment of the prediction, married his daughter to Cambyses, a Persian of mean condition, and commanded one of his officers, named Harpagus, to destroy the infant as soon as it came into the world. Harpagus, fearing the resentment of Mandane, put the child into the hands of the king's shepherd. The shepherd's wife, we are told, was so extremely touched with the beauty of Cyrus, that she desired her husband rather to expose her own son, who was born some time before (a story equally unnatural and incredible), and preserve the young prince. Thus Cyrus was brought up among the shepherds of the king, and one day, as the neighbouring children were at play together, being chosen for their prince or chief, he punished one of his comrades with some severity, and the child's parent complained to Astyages. prince sent therefore for the youthful Cyrus, and observing something noble in his air, together with a great resemblance of his daughter Mandane, he made particular enquiry into his history, and discovered that Cyrus was his grandson. Harpagus, who was the instrument of preserving him, was now punished with the death of his own son; but Astyages, believing that the royalty which the soothsayers had promised to the young prince, was only that which he had lately exercised among the shepherds' children, laid aside his fears. Cyrus being grown up, Harpagus disclosed the secret of his birth to him, with the manner in which he had delivered aim from his grandfather's cruelty. He encouraged him to come into Media, and promised to furnish him with forces, in order to make him master of the country, and depose Astyages. Cyrus now, therefore, engaged the Persians to take arms against the Medes, marched at the head of them to meet Astyages, defeated him, and possessed himself of Media. He carried on many other wars; and at length sat down before Babylon, which, after a long siege, he took.

Xenophon's account of the early life of Cyrus is more credible. According to that writer, Astyages king of Media married his daughter Mandane to Cambyses king of Persia, son and successor to Achæmenes. Cyrus was born at his father's court, and was educated with all the care his birth required. When he was about the age of twelve, his grandfather Astyages sent for him to Media, together with his mother Mandane. Some time after, a prince of Assyria having invaded Media, Astyages, with his son Cyaxares and his grandson Cyrus, marched against him. Cyrus distinguished himself in this war, and defeated the Assyrians. Cambyses afterwards recalled him, that he might have him near his own person; and Astyages dying, his son Cyaxares, uncle oy his mother's side to Cyrus, succeeded him in the kingdom of Media. Cyrus, at the age of thirty, was, by his father Cambyses, made general of the Persian troops; and sent at the head of 30,000 men to the assistance of his uncle Cyaxares, whom the king of Babylon and his allies, the Cappadocians,