judicature. Where these two fail, as often happens, precedents are called for; and a former decifion, though given itself without any fufficient reafon, juftly becomes a fufficient reason for a new decifion. If direct laws and precedents be wanting, imperfect and indirect ones are brought in aid; and the controverted cafe is ranged under them, by analogical reafonings, and comparifons, and fimilitudes, and correfpondencies, that are often more fanciful than real. In general, it may eafily be afferted, that jurifprudence is, in this refpect, different from all the fciences; and in many of its nicer queftions, there cannot properly be faid to be truth or falfhood on either fide. If one pleader brings the cafe under any former law or precedent, by a refined analogy or comparison, the oppofite pleader is not at a lofs to find an oppofite analogy or comparifon; and the preference given by the judge, is often founded 'more on taste and imagination than on any folid argument. Public utility is the general view of all courts of judicature ; and this utility too requires a ftaple rule in all controverfies; but where several rules, nearly equal and indifferent, prefent themselves, 'tis a very flight turn of thought, which fixes the decifion in favour of either party.'

"Our author concludes his ingenious performance with a very entertaining dialogue, wherein he prefents us with a picture of Athenian and French manners, to fhew what wide differences, in the fentiments of morals, are to be found betwixt different nations. He endeavours to make it appear, that the principles, upon which men reafon, in morals, are always the fame; though the conclufions they draw, are often very different. As many ages,' fays he, as have elapfed, fince the fall of Greece and Rome; and fuch changes as have arrived in religion, language, laws and cuftoms, none of these revolutions have ever produced any confiderable innovation in the primary fentiments of morals, more than in thofe of external beauty. Some minute differences, perhaps, may be obferved in both. Horace celebrates a low forehead, and Anacreon joined eye-brows; but the Apollo and the Venus of antiquity, are fill our models for male and female beauty; in like manner, as the character ofScipio continues our ftandard for the glory of heroes, and that of Cornelia for the honour of matrons.

"It appears, that there never was any quality, recommended by any one, as a virtue or moral excellence; but on account of its being ufeful, or agreeable to a man himself, or to others. For what other reafon can there ever be

for

1

for praise or approbation? Or where would be the sense of extolling a good character or action, which at the fame time, is allowed to be good for nothing? All the differences, therefore, in morals, may be reduced to this one general foundation, and may be accounted for by the different views which people take of thefe circumftances.'

ART. 11. Political Difcourfes. By David Hume, Efq; 8vo. 3s. Printed at Edinburgh; for Kincaid and Donaldfon.

EW writers are better qualified, either to inftruct or entertain their readers, than Mr. Hume. On whatever fubject he employs his pen, he prefents us with fomething new; nor is this his only merit, his writings (as we obferved in the preceeding article) receive a farther recommendation from that elegance and fpirit which appears in them, and that clearnefs of reafoning, which diftinguishes them from moft others. The difcourfes now before us, are upon curious and interefting fubjects; abound with folid reflections; and fhew the author's great knowledge of ancient and modern hiftory, and his comprehenfive views of things. To fuch indeed, as have not accustomed themfelves to general reafonings on political fubjects, feveral principles laid down in them, will, doubtlefs, appear too refined and fubtile: but, as our author obferves, when we reafon upon general fubjects, it may be juftly affirmed, that our fpeculations can scarce ever be too fine, provided they be just.

The fubject of his firft difcourfe is Commerce; it is introduced with fome general reflections, after which he proceeds as follows. The greatness of a ftate,' fays he,

and the happiness of its fubjects, however independent they may be fuppofed in fo.ne refpects, are commonly allowed to be infeparable with regard to commerce; and as private men receive greater fecurity, in the poffeffion of their trade and riches, from the power of the public, fo the public becomes powerful in proportion to the riches and extenfive commerce of private men. This maxim is true in general; though I cannot forbear thinking, that it may poffibly admit of fome exceptions, and that we often establish it with too little referve and limitation. There may be fome circumftances, where the commerce and riches, and luxury of individuals, inftead of adding, ftrength to the public, may ferve only to thin its armies, C 2

and

and diminish its authority among the neighbouring nations. Man is a variable being, and fufceptible of many different opinions, principles, and rules of conduct. What may be true while he adheres to one way of thinking, will be found falfe, when he has embraced an oppofite fet of manners and opinions.

• The bulk of every state may be divided into husbandmen and manufacturers. The former are employed in the culture of the land. The latter work up the materials furnished by the former, into all the commodities which are neceflary or ornamental to human life. As foon as men quit their favage ftate, where they live chiefly by hunting and fishing, they muft fall into thefe two claffes; tho' the arts of agriculture employ at firft the most numerous part of the fociety. Time and experience improve fo much thefe arts, that the land may eafily maintain a much greater number of men, than those who are immediately employed in its cultivation, or who furnifh the more neceffary manufactures to fuch as are fo employed.

If thefe fuperfluous hands be turned towards the finer arts, which are commonly denominated the arts of luxury'; they add to the happiness of the ftate: fince they afford to many the opportunity of receiving enjoyments, with which they would otherwife have been unacquainted. But may not another scheme be propofed for the employment of thefe fuperfluous hands? may not the fovereign lay claim to them, and employ them in fleets and armies, to encrease the dominions of the ftate abroad, and fpread its fame over diftant nations: 'tis certain, that the fewer defires and wants are found in the proprietors and labourers of land, the fewer hands do they employ; and confequently the fuperfluities of the land, instead of maintaining tradesmen and manufacturers, may fupport fleets and armies to a much greater extent, than where a great many arts are required to minifter to the luxury of particular perfons. Here therefore feems to be a kind of oppofition betwixt the greatnefs of the ftate, and the happiness of the fubjects. A ftate is never greater, than when all its fuperfluous hands are employed in the fervice of the public. The cafe and convenience of private perfons require, that thefe hands fhould be employed in their fervice. The one can never be fatisfied, but at the expence of the other. As the ambition of the fovereign muft entrench on the luxury of individuals; fo the luxury of individuals muft diminish the force, and check the ambition of the fovereign,' That

3

That this reafoning is not chimerical, but founded on hiftory and experience, our author fhews from the Spartan, Roman, and other ftates, which owed their great power to the want of commerce and luxury; and as it is natural to afk, whether fovereigns may not return to the maxims of ancient policy, and confult their own intereft, in this refpect, more than the happiness of their fubjects; he anfwers, that to him it appears almost impoffible, because ancient policy was violent, and contrary to the more natural and ufual courfe of things. In the fubfequent part of this difcourfe, he proceeds to fhew that, though the want of trade and manufactures, among a free and very martial people, may fometimes have no other effect, than to render the public more powerful, yet according to the most natural course of things, induftry, and arts, and trade increase the power of the fovereign, as well as the happiness of the fubjects. Towards the clofe of it, he endeavours to make it appear, that the poverty of the common people in France, Italy and Spain, is, in fome measure, oweing to the fuperior riches of the foil and happiness of the climate. In fuch a fine mold or foil, fays he, as that of thofe more fouthern regions, agriculture is an eafy ar and one man, with a couple of forry horfes, will be able, in a season, to cultivate as much land as will pay a pretty confiderable rent to the proprietor. All the art, which the farmer knows, is to leave his ground fallow for a year, as foon as it is exhaufted; and the warmth of the fun alone, and temperature of the climate enrich it, and restore its fertility. Such poor peasants, therefore, require only a fimple maintenance for their labour. They have no flock nor riches, which claim more; and at the fame time, they are for ever dependant on their landlord, who gives no leafes, nor fears that his land will be fpoiled, by the ill methods of cultivation. In England, the land is rich, but coarfe, muft be cultivated at a great expence, and produces but flender crops, when not carefully managed, and by a method, which gives not the full profit, but in a courfe of feveral years. A farmer, therefore, in England, must have a confiderable flock and a long lease; which beget proportionable profits. The fine vineyards of Champagne and Burgundy, that oft yield to the landlord above five pounds per acre, are cultivated by peafants, who have fcarce bread; and the reafon is, that fuch peasants need no ftock but their own limbs, and a few inftruments of husbandry, which they can buy for twenty fhillings. The

C 3

farmer

farmers are commonly in fome better circumftances (in those countries. But the graziers are moft at their ease of all thofe, who cultivate the land. The reason is ftill the fame. Men must have profits proportionable to their expence and hazard. Where fo confiderable a number of the labouring poor as the peasants and farmers, are in very low circumstances, all the reft must partake of their po verty, whether the government of that nation be monarchical or republican.

"We may form a fimilar remark with regard to the general hiftory of mankind. What is the reason why no people living betwixt the tropics could ever yet attain to any art or civility, or reach even any police in their government and any military difcipline; while few nations in the temperate climates have been altogether deprived of these advantages? It is probable, that one caufe of this phænomenon is the warmth and equality of weather in the torrid zone, that render cloaths and houses lefs requifite for the inhabitants, and thereby remove, in part, that neceffity, which is the great fpur to industry and invention, Curis acuens mortalia corda. Not to mention, that the fewer goods or poffeffions of this kind any people enjoy, the fewer quarrels are likely to arife amongst them, and the lefs neceffity will there be for a fettled police or regular authority to protect and defend them from foreign enemies or from each other."

The

Our author introduces his difcourfe on Luxury, which follows that on Commerce, with obferving that it is a word of a very uncertain fignification, and may be taken in a good as well as in a bad fenfe; that in general, it means great refinement in the gratification of the fenfes, and that any degree of it may be innocent or blameable, according to the age or country or condition of the perfon. bounds, fays he, betwixt the virtue and the vice cannot here be fixed exactly, more than in other moral fubjects. To imagine that the gratifying any of the fenfes, or the indulging any delicacy in meats, drinks, or apparel, is, of itfelf a vice, can never enter into any head, that is not difordered by the frenzies of a fanatical enthufiafm. I have, indeed, heard of a monk abroad, who, because the windows of his cell opened upon a very noble profpect, made a covenant with his eyes never to turn that way, or receive fo fenfual a gratification. And fuch is the crime of drinking Champagne or Burgundy, preferably to fmall beer or porter. Thefe indulgencies are only vices, when they are purfued at the expence of fome virtue, as liberality or charity in like manner, as they are follies, when for them a man ruins

his