and iv, 13, 17.) The doctrine that each particular individual of the human race has a particular guardian or tutelary angel, to attend him in all his ways through life, is not sufficiently proved to be received as a doctrine of the Bible, though it seems to have some countenance from several passages. (See Matthew xviii, 10; Acts xii, 15; Ecclesiastes v, 6; Genesis xlviii, 16.) It should not, however, be asserted as a dogma of revelation, as all the passages which seem to favour it admit more properly of another interpretation.

The dignity ascribed to angels was indefinitely above that of human beings. They were always spoken of with reverence, and their embassies treated with the profoundest consideration. The belief in such an order of beings, held in such rank, might be considered dangerous to monotheism, or the belief and worship of one God. And such it must be, unless strictly defined and cautiously guarded, as this doctrine is in the Holy Scriptures. The Hebrews at different times fell into the gross forms of idolatry which they copied from their heathen neighbours, but never fell into the error of angel worship. In later times, the Christian converts were in danger, from the prevalence of the Oriental philosophy among both Jews and Greeks, of exalting angels to a sort of mediatorial dignity, and of paying them a kind of worship by offering their prayers through them to God. They were, therefore, cautioned against "the worshipping of angels," as a destructive heresy, (Colossians ii, 18.) But to this danger probably the Gentile converts were chiefly exposed: the angels they worshipped were not the celestial beings known among the Hebrews by that appellation, but what were known in the Greek mythology as good dæmons; or, if the Gnostics are here referred to, as a sort of divine progeny, cons, which the wild theognostic speculations of the Oriental philosophers had invented and clothed with the attributes of subordinate divinities.

The angels of the Old Testament were mighty beings; they "excelled in strength," (Psalm ciii, 20;) they were "sons of the mighty," (Psalm xxix, 1;) they were "sons of God," (Job xxxviii, 7. But they were not God; they were his servants, "doing his commandments and hearkening unto the voice of his word." Psalm ciii, 20. "Among the angels [, elohim, here used to denote mighty ones, celestial dignitaries, angels,]

there is none like unto thee, O Lord; neither are there any works like unto thy works." Psalm lxxxvi, 8. "For who in the sky can be compared unto Jehovah? Who [, bi-bene elim] among the sons of the mighty [i. e., the angels, liter ally the gods] can be likened unto Jehovah? God is greatly to be feared [ida, be-sod kedoshim,] in the council of his holy ones, [i. e., the angels,] and to be had in reverence of all them that are about him." Psalm lxxxix, 6, 7. Thus also in Psalm xxix, 1, 2, where precisely the same language is used: "Give to Jehovah, O sons of the mighty. Give to Jehovah the glory of his name; prostrate yourselves to Jehovah in the majesty of holiness." The angels were not to be compared to Jehovah, but were reverently to prostrate themselves before him, and joyfully to sing praises unto him; (Psalm cxlviii, 2 ;) and how well this accords with the New Testament doctrine is seen from Revelations iv and v, 11-14. The angels, also, are called God's "hosts" or armies. They are the powers which surround him, and over whom he exerts a supreme control and direction as a chief or captain does over his warriors. (Psalm ciii, 21, and cxlviii, 2.) They are the "host of heaven." 1 Kings xxii, 19. Hence, also, the frequent epithets, "Jehovah of hosts," "God of hosts," that is "God of the celestial armies." (2 Kings xix, 31; Psalms xxiv, 10; xlvi, 7; lix, 5; lxxx, 4, 14.) There is no comparison between the angels of the Bible, and the demi-gods, good dæmons, or cons of the heathen. The Hebrews never beheld them in the light of demi-gods, and never spoke of them as having any independent rule or authority, or any personal or separate interest, distinct from the honour and dominion of Jehovah and the happiness and order of his universe. A more beautiful, sublime, and comforting thought, and one honourable to the exalted majesty of the Divine Being, and to the unity of his essence, does not occur and cannot be conceived in the whole arrangement of created things, than this same Scriptural doctrine of angels. They were the highest created models of intelligence, purity, and happiness; and to be like them is the highest reach of our heavenly hope. (Matthew xxii, 30.) But above them appears the wisdom, power, and holiness of the Divine Being, beyond all reach of comparison, inconceivably surpassing all stretch of finite minds; and in comparison of his absolute perfection we might indulge in the

strong language of the patriarch,and say, The wisdom and fidelity of angels are not worthy of his confidence, and the purity of heaven is as nothing before him. Job iv, 18; xv, 15, and xxv, 5.

The doctrine of archangels is also taught in the Holy Scriptures. From the mention of them in Revelation viii, 2, it would seem there are seven archangels, who stand before the throne of God, as his chief ministers. (See also Luke i, 19; Tobit xii, 15.) These have authority over other angels, to direct their especial embassies, subordinate to the will of God. Hence we read of "Michael and his angels," probably meaning the angels of which that archangel was the official chief. Revelation xii, 7. Hence also we repeatedly read of "the principalities and powers in heavenly places," by which we have an idea of a hierarchy of chief and subordinate angels. (Ephesians i, 21, and ii, 10; Colossians i, 16; 1 Peter iii, 22.) Of the seven archangels we have the names only of two given in the Holy Scriptures, Michael and Gabriel, (Daniel x, 13, 21, and xii, 1; Jude 9; Revelation xii, 7; Daniel viii, 16, and ix, 21; Luke i, 19, 26;) and that of Raphael also, in the Apocrypha. Tobit iii, 17; v, 4; viii, 2; ix, 1, 5; xii, 15. It would seem that these chief angels had commission to protect or punish nations, and were intrusted with the weightiest affairs of the providential government. Michael was the patron and protector of the Jewish nation. Hence it was said to Daniel, "Michael standeth for the children of thy people;" that is, he stands before God as a chief minister, to represent the affairs of the Jewish nation and people. Daniel xii, 1. Hence also he was called, speaking to Daniel, “Michael, your prince." Daniel x, 21. He is also called "Michael, one of the chief princes." Daniel x, 13. It was he that contended about the body of Moses. Jude 9. The archangels who "stood before the throne of God" opened the seven grand epochs of the "trumpets," (Revelation viii, 2,) and of the "vials." Revelation xvi, 1. They will attend Christ at his second appearing. 1 Thessalonians iv, 16.

The doctrine of archangels does not appear distinctively in the Psalms, unless it is hinted in the words, "Ye, his angels, mighty in strength," (Psalm ciii, 20,) as if that class of angels were to be distinguished from 7, tsebaav, his hosts, that is, the great body of the angels, the same also as ", mesharethav, his ministers, both occurring in verse 21.

Neither do we find the doctrine of fallen or wicked angels in the Psalms. The "evil angels" of Psalm lxxviii, 49, are to be understood of good angels commissioned to inflict evil, that is, sufferings and death. The reference there is made directly to "the destroyer," (Exodus xii, 23,) mentioned also by the apostle, and called, "him that destroyed." Hebrews xi, 28. The "destroying angel," that is, the angel commissioned to destroy, is also mentioned in the history of David. 2 Samuel xxiv, 16.

In Psalm cix, 6, our English version reads, "Let Satan stand at his right hand." So also Luther and others understand it of the chief fallen angel, the devil. But, satan, there is undoubtedly to be understood as an appellative and not as a proper name, and should read, therefore, "Let an adversary stand at his right." The doctrine of evil angels, however, early appears in the Old Testament, and developed itself in the superstition as well as in the faith of the early nations. In the New Testament it comes out more clearly, as the brighter revelations in regard to sin and holiness and the plan of redemption appear.

It would seem from various passages, that the fallen angels are also organized into a hierarchy, similar to that which we have noticed as belonging to the good angels. Romans viii, 38; Ephesians vi, 12; Colossians ii, 15. It is probable that he who is called, by way of eminence, "that old serpent, which is the devil and Satan," (Revelation xx, 2,) was in his "first estate" (Jude 6; 2 Peter ii, 4) an archangel in heaven, and that the other evil angels fell through his influence as their chief or leader. "The devil is usually conceived of as a being who, before his fall, had a high rank, if not the highest in the angelic orders, and who fell together with the whole body of angels that was under his authority. . . . He has established a kingdom of darkness, of which he is the head, whose members are the other evil spirits subordinated to him, whose arena is our earth, whose instruments are the men who have given themselves over to his authority: for even the evil spirits form an organized community, not, indeed, based upon love nor upon the voluntary recognition of a higher law, which annuls or subjects self-will; but based upon force and fear and upon their common opposition to God and his kingdom. True it is, that no upright and enduring association can be conceived of

among those that are only evil; because such a fellowship presupposes that the strife of individual interests is harmonized, either subjectively by love or objectively by subordination to a higher law; yet an external and limited union, as experience teaches, may, to a degree, promote the interests of selfishness itself. But the general rule, that a kingdom divided against itself cannot stand, (Matthew xii, 25, 26,) must hold good in respect to the realm of evil spirits."*

III. THEORY OF NATURE.

The Hebrews had no knowledge of astronomy, or natural philosophy, which was worthy the name of science. Some idea of the heavenly constellations is indicated in Job ix, 9; xxxviii, 31, 32; Amos v, 8; which the patriarch might have learned from the Babylonians, or from fragments of earlier traditional science. But their views of the material universe generally, seemed to be such as would rise spontaneously in the mind from a close observation of external phenomena. In common with the ancients, they supposed the earth to be an immense plain, bounded everywhere by the ocean, supported upon foundations in a manner altogether incomprehensible, by the power of God, Job xxxviii, 4-6; Psalms lxxxii, 5; civ, 5; and that around the earth, at no great distances, the sun, moon, and heavenly bodies revolved. Of geography they knew nothing beyond their own country, Arabia, Egypt, Syria, and the East as far as Euphrates; and in later times to the Indus, and westward to Greece and Italy. An "island" was any country afar off, which lay beyond sea with respect to the land of the Hebrews. Psalms lxxii, 10; xcvii, 1. The "isles of the Gentiles," were those countries of western Asia and Europe which bordered the Euxine and Mediterranean seas. Genesis x, 5. The most comprehensive terms by which a Hebrew could express the whole extent of the habitable earth, were used to set forth the dominion of Messiah; "He shall have dominion

Theological Lectures of Dr. A. D. C. Twesten, Professor of Theology in the Frederick William University of Berlin. (See Bib. Sacra, vol. i, No. 4; and vol ii, No. 5.