blessing which was ascribed to the peculiar favour of God. (Psal. fii. 8. cxxviii. 3. Jer. xi. 16. Hos. xiv. 6.) The oil, extracted from it by a press, enable the Jews to carry on an extensive commerce with the Tyrians (Ezek. xxvii. 17. compared with 1 Kings v. 11.); they also sent presents of oil to the kings of Egypt. (Hos. xii. 1.) The berries of the olive tree were sometimes plucked or carefully shaken off by the hand before they were ripe. (Isa. xvii. 6. xxiv. 13. Deut. xxiv. 20.) It appears from Mic. vi. 15. that the presses for extracting the oil were worked with the feet; the best and purest oil, in Exod. xxvii. 20. termed pure oil-olive beaten, was that obtained by only beating and squeezing the olives, without subjecting them to the press.

GOOD SEED is the Son of Man; the FIELD is the world; the GOOD SEED are the children of the kingdom; the TARES are the children of the wicked one; the enemy that SOWED them is the devil; the HARVEST is the end of the world; and the REAPERS are the angels. As therefore the TARES are gathered and burnt in the fire, so shall it be in the end of the world. Whose FAN is in his hand, and he will thoroughly PURGE his FLOOR, and GATHer his wheat into the GARNER, but he will BURN UP the CHAFF with UNQUENCHABLE FIRE. By what an apt and awful similitude does St. Paul represent God's rejection of the Jews and admission of the heathens, by the boughs of an olive being lopped off, and the scion of a young olive ingrafted into the old tree! (Rom. xi. 17. &c.)"-a pracAmong the judgments with which God threatened the tice which still obtains in the Morea or Peloponnesus;5 Israelites for their sins, it was denounced, that though they" and, by continuing the same imagery, how strictly does he had olive trees through all their coasts, yet they should not caution the Gentiles against insolently exulting over the muanoint themselves with the oil, for the olive should cast her tilated branches and cherishing the vain conceit that the fruit (Deut. xxviii. 40.); being blasted (as the Jerusalem boughs were lopped off merely that they might be ingrafted; Targum explains it) in the very blossom, the buds should for if God spared not the native branches, they had greater drop off for want of rain, or the fruit should be eaten with reason to fear lest he would not spare them; that they should worms. Maimonides observes,' that the idolaters in those remember that the Jews through their wilful disbelief of countries pretended by certain magical arts to preserve all Christianity were cut off, and that they, the Gentiles, if they manner of fruit, so that the worms should not gnaw the vines, disgrace their religion, would in like manner forfeit the nor either buds or fruits fall from the trees (as he relates their divine favour, and their present flourishing branches be also words out of one of their books): in order, therefore, that he cut down! To inspire the Gentile Christians with humility, might deter the Israelites from all idolatrous practices, Moses he concludes with assuring them that the Jewish nation, pronounces that they should draw upon themselves those very though they had experienced the severity of God, as he calls punishments, which they endeavoured by such means to it, were not totally forsaken of the Almighty: that the branches, though cut down and robbed of their ancient honours, were not abandoned to perish: when the Jews returned from their infidelity they would be ingrafted :—an omnipotent hand was still able to reinsert them into their original stock. For if thou, O heathen, the scion of an unfruitful wild olive, wert cut out of thy own native barren tree, and, by a process repugnant to the ordinary laws of nature, wert ingrafted into the fruitful generous olive-how much more will not those, who naturally belong to the ancient stock, be, in future time, ingrafted into their own kindred olive! With what singular beauty and propriety is the gradual progress of religion in the soul, from the beginning to its maturity, represented by seed committed to a generous soil, which, after a few successions of day and night, imperceptibly vegetates-peeps above the surface-springs higher and higher-and spontaneously producing, first, the verdant blade then the ear-afterwards the Swelling grain, gradually filling the ear (Mark iv. 27, 28.) ;6 and when the time of harvest is come, and it is arrived at its maturity, it is then reaped and collected into the storehouse. Beautiful illustrations and images like these, taken from rural life, must seal the strongest impressions, particularly upon the minds of Jews, who were daily employed in these occupations, from which these pertinent similes and expressive comparisons were borrowed."

avoid.

The ancient Hebrews were very fond of GARDENS, which are frequently mentioned in the Sacred Writings, and derive their appellations from the prevalence of certain trees; as the garden of nuts and of pomegranates. (Sol. Song vi. 11. iv. 13.) The modern inhabitants of the East take equal delight in gardens with the ancient Hebrews, on account of the refreshing shade and delicious fruits which they afford, and also because the air is cooled by the waters of which their gardens are never allowed to be destitute. (1 Kings xxi. 2. 2 Kings xxv. 4. Eccles. ii. 5, 6. John xviii. 1. xix. 41.) The Jews were greatly attached to gardens, as places of burial: hence they frequently built sepulchres in them. (2 Kings xxi. 18. Mark xv. 46.) A pleasant region is called a garden of the Lord, or of God, that is, a region extremely pleasant. See examples in Gen. xiii. 10. Isa. li. 3. and Ezek. xxxi. 8.2 VII. The sacred poets derive many beautiful ALLUSIONS and IMAGES from the rural and domestic economy of the Jews; and as the same pursuits were cherished and followed by them during the manifestation of our Redeemer, "it is natural to imagine that in the writings of Jews there must occur frequent allusions to the implements and arts of agriculture, and to those rustic occupations which in general formed the study and exercise of this nation. Hence the beautiful images and apt siinilitudes in the following passages:-No one having put his hand to the PLOUGH and looking back is fit for the kingdom of God.-Ye are God's HUSBANDRY, or cultivated field.A workman that needeth not to be ashamed, rightly DIVIDING the word of truth.-Wherefore lay apart all filthiness and superfluity of naughtiness, and receive with meekness the engrafted word.-Whatsoever a man SOWETH, that shall he REAP: he that SOWETH to the flesh-lives a sensual life-shall from the flesh REAP destruction, but he that SOWETH to the spirit-lives a rational life-shall from the spirit REAP everlasting life.-Consider the ravens, they sow not, neither do they REAP, or gather into barns, yet your heavenly Father feedeth them. I am the good SHEPHERD, and know my SHEEP, and am known of mine. Fear not, LITTLE FLOCK, it is your Father's good pleasure to give you the kingdom. How striking is the parable of the sower, which, by seed, scattered promiscuously, and in every direction by a husbandman, and meeting a various fate, according to the respective nature of the soil into which it fell, represents the different reception which Gospel doctrine would experience in the world, according to the different dispositions and principles of that mind into which it was admitted! He that soweth the

1 More Nevoch. p. 3. c. 37.

Ikenii Antiquitates Hebr. pp. 583--589. Pareau, Antiq. Hebr. pp. 406 St. Paul alludes. (Rom. xi. 17. 20. 23, 24.) Logothetes" (his friend and -411. Jahn et Ackermann, Archæol. Bibl. §§ 57-70. a 1 Cor. iii. 9. Θεου γεωργιου.

"The Rev. John Hartley, who travelled in Greece in 1828, says,-"I had my attention directed to the practice of grafting the olive trees, to which guide) "showed me a few wild olives; but by far the greater number are such as have been grafted. He informs me that it is the universal practice Greece to graft, from a good tree, upon the wild olive." (Missionary Register, May, 1830, p. 225.)

2 Tim. ii. 15. Epal op GoTSMOUTH. A beautiful and expressivein image taken from a husbandman (p) drawing his furrow even, and cutting the ground in a direct line. Ernesti says, that the cognate words Opoтoμ is used by Clemens Alexandrinus, Eusebius, and others, for opSoo-right doctrine. Instit. Interp. Nov. Test. p. 109. (Edit. 1792.) A similar remark is also made by Schecisner, voce opoтOμS.

|

Seminis inodo spargenda sunt, quod quamvis sit exiguum, cum occupavit idoneum locum, vires suas explicat, et ex minimo in maximos auctus diffunditur. Senecæ Opera, tom. ii. epist. 38. p. 134. edit. Gronovii. 1672. Harwood's Introduction, vol. ii. pp. 107–112.

SECT. II.]

inquisitive and active mind of man, seconded by his wants, | in the commencement of his reign, Solomon was obliged to soon secured to them a greater extent, and fewer imperfec- send to Hiram king of Tyre for a skilful artist (2 Chron. ii. tions. Accordingly, in the fourth generation after the crea-7.), by whose direction the model of the temple and all the curious furniture of it was both designed and finished. From the Syrians the Israelites must have learned much, because, long after the reign of Solomon, there were numerous native artisans employed in carpentry and building (2 Kings xii. 11-13. xxii. 4-6.); and among the captives carried away by Nebuchadnezzar, all the craftsmen and smiths are generally noticed. (2 Kings xxiv. 14.) But besides these, mention is made of particular manufactures, as potters (Jer. xviii. 2—4.), fullers (2 Kings xviii. 17. Isa. vii. 3. Mal. iii. 2. Mark ix. 3.), bakers (Jer. xxxvii. 21. Hos. vii. 4.), and barbers. (Ezek. v. 1.)

tion of man, we find mention made of artificers in brass and iron, and also of musical instruments. (Gen. iv. 21, 22.) Those communities, which, from local or other causes, could not flourish by means of agriculture, would necessarily direct their attention to the encouragement and improvement of the arts. These, consequently, advanced with great rapidity, and were carried to a high pitch so far back as the time of Noah; as we may learn from the very large vessel built under his direction, the construction of which shows that they must have been well acquainted with some at least of the mechanical arts. They had also, without doubt, seen the operations of artificers in other ways besides that of building, and after the deluge imitated their works as well as they could. Hence it is, that shortly after that event, we find mention made of utensils, ornaments, and many other things which imply a knowledge of the arts. Compare Gen. ix. 21. xi. 1-9. xii. 7, 8. xiv. I-16. xvii. 10. xviii. 4—6. xix. 32. xxxi. 19. 27. 34.

II. Egypt in the early age of the world excelled all other nations in a knowledge of the arts. Although the Hebrews during their residence in Egypt applied themselves to the rearing of cattle, yet they could not remain four hundred years in that country without becoming initiated to a considerable degree into that knowledge which the Egyptians possessed. Among other labours imposed upon them, was the building of treasure cities (Exod. i. 11-14.), and, according to Josephus, they were employed in erecting pyramids. Moses, it is true, did not enact any special laws in favour of the arts, nor did he interdict them or lessen them in the estimation of the people; on the contrary, he speaks in the praise of artificers. (Exod. xxxv. 30-35. xxxvi. 1. et se7. xxxviii. 22, 23, &c.) The grand object of Moses, in a temporal point of view, was to promote agriculture, and he thought it best, as was done in other nations, to leave the arts to the ingenuity and industry of the people.

III. During the captivity many Hebrews (most commonly those to whom a barren tract of the soil had been assigned) applied themselves to the arts and to merchandise. Subsequently, when they were scattered abroad among different nations, a knowledge of the arts became so popular, that the Talmudists taught that all parents ought to teach their children some art or handicraft. They indeed mention many learned men of their nation, who practised some kind of manual labour, or, as we should say, followed some trade. Accordingly, we find in the New Testament, that Joseph the husband of Mary was a carpenter, and that he was assisted by no less a personage than our Saviour in his labours. (Matt. xiii. 55. Mark vi. 3.) Simon is mentioned as a tanner in the city of Joppa.2 (Acts ix. 43. x. 32.) Alexander, a learned Jew, was a copper-smith (2 Tim. iv. 14.); Paul and Aquila Not only the Greeks, but the were tent makers, vol. Jews also, esteemed certain trades infamous. At any rate, the Rabbins reckoned the driver of asses and camels, barbers, sailors, shepherds, and inn-keepers, in the same class with robbers. Those Ephesians and Cretans, who were lovers of gain, axons (1 Tim. iii. 8. Tit. i. 7.), were men, as we may learn from ancient writers, who were determined to In the apostolic age, get money, in however base a manner. the more eminent Greek tradesmen were united into a society. (Acts xix. 25.)3

IV. ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTS PRACTISED BY the Jews.

En

Soon after the death of Joshua, a place was expressly allotted by Joab, of the tribe of Judah, to artificers: for in the genealogy of the tribe of Judah, delivered in 1 Chron. iv. 14., 1. WRITING.-We meet with no notice of this art in the we read of a place called the Valley of Craftsmen, and (verse 21. 23.) of a family of workmen of fine linen, and another Old Testament before the copy of the law was given by God of potters: and when Jerusalem was taken by Nebuchad- to Moses, which was written (that is, engraven) on two tables nezzar, the enemy carried away all the craftsmen and smiths. of stone by the finger of God (Exod. xxxi. 18.), and this is (2 Kings xxiv. 14.) But as a proof that their skill in manu-called the writing of God. (Exod. xxxii. 16.) It is, therefactures, and trade therein, could not be very extensive, we fore, probable that God himself was the first who taught find that the prophet Ezekiel (chap. xxvii.), in describing the letters to Moses, who communicated the knowledge of them affluence of the goods which came to Tyre, makes mention to the Israelites, and they to the other eastern nations.* of nothing brought thither from Judæa, except wheat, oil, graving or sculpture seems, therefore, to be the most ancient grapes, and balm, which were all the natural products of way of writing, of which we have another very early instance their ground. It appears that the mistress of the family in Exod. xxxix. 30., where we are told that "holiness to usually made the clothing for her husband, her children, and the Lord" was written on a golden plate, and worn on the And we find that the names of the herself, and also for sale. (Exod. xxxv. 25. 1 Sam. ii. 19. high-priest's head. Prov. xxxi. 18-24. Acts ix. 39.) Employment, conse- twelve tribes were commanded to be written on twelve rods. quently, as far as the arts were concerned, was limited chiefly (Num. xvii. 2.) To this mode of writing there is an alluto those who engaged in the more difficult performances; for sion in Ezek. xxxvii. 16.5 In later times the Jews made instance, those who built chariots, hewed stones, sculptured use of broad rushes or flags for writing on, which grew in idols or made them of metal, or who made instruments of great abundance in Egypt, and are noticed by the prophet gold, silver, and brass, and vessels of clay, and the like. Isaiah when foretelling the confusion of that country. (Isa. (See Judg. xvii. 4. Isa. xxix. 16. xxx. 14. Jer. xxviii. 13.) In the time of Saul, mention is made of smiths, who manufactured implements of agriculture as well as arms; but who were carried off by the Philistines, in order that they might be enabled to keep the Israelites more effectually in subjection. (1 Sam. xiii. 19-22.) Among the Hebrews, artificers were not, as among the Greeks and Romans, servants and slaves, but men of some rank and wealth: and as luxury and riches increased, they became very numerous. (Jer. xxiv. 1. xxix.2. 2Kings xxiv. 14.) Building and architecture, however, accustomed, in the remotest ages, to inscribe their laws and wise sayings did not attain much perfection prior to the reign of the accom-upon stone. See Meidanii Proverb. Arab. p. 45. (cited in Burder's Oriental Literature, vol. i. p. 198.) and Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary, on Exod. plished Solomon. We read, indeed, before the Israelites camexxii. 15. into the land of Canaan, that Bezaleel and Aholiab (who were employed in the construction of the tabernacle) excelled in all manner of workmanship (Exod. xxxv. 30-35.), but we are there told, that they had their skill by inspiration from God, and it does not appear that they had any successors; for in the days of Solomon, when the Hebrews were at rest from all their enemies, and were perfectly at liberty to follow out improvements of every kind, yet they had no professed artists that could undertake the work of the temple; so that,

1 Antiq. lib. ii. c. 9. § 1.

The trade of a tanner was esteemed by the Jews so contemptible, that all who followed it were required to mention the same before their marriage, under the penalty of the nuptials being void. It is recorded in the Misna, that, after the death of a man whose brother had exercised the trade of a was permitted to decline intermarrying with that brother. Townsend's tanner, the wise men of Sidon determined, that the widow of the deceased Harmony of the New Test. vol. ii. p. 103. Jahn's Archæologia Biblica, by Mr. Upham, §§ 80-84. Pareau, Antiq. Hebr. pp. 419-423.

• We know that the inhabitants of Yemen or the Southern Arabia were

Writing on billets or sticks was practised by the Greeks. Plutarch, in his Life of Solon (Vitæ, tom. i. p. 20. ed. Bryan.), and Aulus Gellius (Noct. Att. lib. ii. c. 12.), inform us that the very ancient laws of that philosopher, preserved at Athens, were inscribed on tablets of wood called Arones. In later times a similar mode of writing was practised by the aboriginal Britons, who cut their letters upon sticks, which were most commonly squared, and sometimes formed into three sides; consequently a single stick contained either four or three lines. (See Ezek. xxxvii. 16.) The squares were used for general subjects, and for stanzas of four lines in poetry; the trilateral ones were adapted to triades, and for a peculiar kind of ancient metre, called Triban or triplet, and Englyn Milwyr, or the warrior's Several sticks with writing upon them were put together, forming a kind of frame, which was called Peithynen or elucidator; and was so contrived that each stick might be turned for the facility of reading, the

verse.

xix. 6, 7.) Writing on palm and other leaves is still prac-
tised in the East.1
The other eastern nations made use chiefly of parchment,
being the thin skins of animals carefully dressed. The best

end of each running out alternately on both sides of the frame. The sub

joined cut

is an engraved specimen of ancient British writmg, copied from Dr. Fry's elegant work entitled Pantographia. p. 307.), Th correct translation reading in the modern orthography of Wales, with a correct

"Aryv y doeth yw pwyll:

Bid ezain alltud:

Cyvnewid a haelion:

Diengid rhywan eid rhygadarn:

Enwawg meiciad o' i voc:

Goiaen awel yn nghyving:

Hir oreistez í ogan:

Llawer car byw i Indeg."

TRANSLATION.

"The weapon of the wise is reason:

Let the exile be moving:

Commerce with generous ones:

was made at Pergamos, whence it was called Charta Pergamena. It is probable that the Jews learned the use of it from them, and that this is what is meant by a roll (Ezra vi. 2.), and a roll of a book (Jer. xxxvi. 2.), and a scroll rolled together (Isa. xxxiv. 4.): for it could not be thin and weak paper, but parchment which is of some consistency, that was capable of being thus rolled up. St. Paul is the only person who makes express mention of parchment. (2 Tim. iv. 13.) In Job xix. 24. and in Jer. xvii. 1. there is mention made of pens of iron, with which they probably made the letters, when they engraved on lead, stone, or other hard substances: but for softer materials they, in all probability, made use of quills or reeds; for we are told of some in the tribe of Zebulun who handled the pen of the writer. (Judg. v. 14.) David alludes to the pen of a ready writer (Psal. xlv. 1.), and Baruch, as we are told, wrote the words of Jeremiah with ink in a book. (Jer. xxxvi. 18.) It is highly probable that several of the prophets wrote upon tablets of wood, or some similar substance. (Compare Isa. xxx. 8. and Habakkuk ii. 2.) Such tablets, it is well known, were in use long before the time of Homer (who lived about one hundred and fifty years before the prophet Isaiah). Zecharias, the father of John the Baptist, when required to name his son, asked for a writing-table, vandov (Luke i. 63.); and such tablets were also in use among the Romans and other ancient nations, and are yet to be seen in modern Greece, where they are called by the same name. They were not finally disused in western Europe until the fourteenth century of the Christian æra. They were, in general, covered with wax, and the writing was executed with styles or pens, made of gold, silver, brass, iron, copper, ivory, or bone, which at one end were pointed for the purpose of inscribing the letters, and smooth at the other extremity for the purpose of erasing. In Barbary the children, who are sent to school, write on a smooth thin board slightly daubed over with whiting, which may be wiped off or renewed at pleasure. The Copts, who are employed by the great men of Egypt in keeping their accounts, &c. make use of a kind of pasteboard, from which the writing is occasionally wiped off with a wet sponge. To this mode of writing there is an allusion in Neh. xiii. 14., and especially in Num. v. 23. ; where, in the case of the woman suspected of adultery, who

ters more visible and distinct, they rub them over with oil mixed with pulverized charcoal, which process also renders them so permanent, that they never can be effaced. When one slip is insufficient to contain all that they intend to write on any particular subject, the Ceylonese string several together by passing a piece of twine through them, and attach them to a board in the same way as we file newspapers. (Percival's Account of the Island of Ceylon, p. 205.) The Bramin manuscripts, in the Telinga language, sent to Oxford from Fort St. George, are written on the leaves of the Ampana, or Palma Malabarica. In the Maldive Islands, the natives

Let the very feeble run away; let the very powerful proceed: are said to write on the leaves of the Macarciquean, which are a fathom and

The swineherd is proud of his swine:

A gale is almost ice in a narrow place:

Long penance to slander:

The frail Indeg has many living relations."

A continuation of this mode of writing may be found in the Runic or Clog, (a corruption of Log) Almanacks, which prevailed among the northern nations of Europe so late even as the sixteenth century. See a description and engraving of one in Dr. Plot's Natural History of Staffordshire, pp. 418-422.

In the Sloanian Library, there are upwards of twenty manuscripts written on leaves, written in the Sanskrit, Burman, Peguan, Ceylonese, and other languages. (Ayscough's Catalogue of the Sloane Library, pp. 904-906.) In Tanjore and other parts of India, the palmyra leaf is used. (Dr. C. Buchanan's "Christian Researches in Asia," pp. 70, 71. 8vo. edit.) The common books of the Burmans, like those of the Hindoos, particularly of such as inhabit the southern parts of India, are composed of the palmyra leaf, on which the letters are engraved with a stylus. (Symes's Account of an Embassy to Ava, vol. ii. p. 409. 8vo.) In their more elegant books, the Burmans write on sheets of ivory, or on very fine white palmy. ra leaves: the ivory is stained black, and the margins are ornamented with gilding, while the characters are enamelled or gilt. On the paliny ra leaves the characters are in general of black enamel: and the ends of the leaves and margins are painted with flowers in various bright colours. A hole through both ends of each leaf serves to connect the whole into a volume by means of two strings, which also pass through the two wooden boards that serve for binding. In the finer binding of these kinds of books, the boards are lacquered; the edges of the leaves are cut smooth and gilt, and the title is written on the upper board. The two boards are by a knot or jewel secured at a little distance from the boards, so as to prevent the book from falling to pieces, but sufficiently distant to admit of the upper leaves being turned back, while the lower ones are read. The more elegant books are in general wrapped up in silk cloth, and bound round by a garter, in which the natives ingeniously contrive to weave the title of the book. (Asiatic Researches, vol. iv. p. 306. 8vo. edit.) The Ceylonese sometimes make use of the palm leaf, but generally prefer that of the Talipot tree, on account of its superior breadth and thickness. From these leaves, which are of immense size, they cut out slips from a foot to a foot and a half long, and about two inches broad. These slips being snoothed and all excrescences pared off with the knife, they are ready for use without any other preparation: a fine-pointed steel pencil, like a bodkin, and set in a wooden or ivory handle, ornamented according to the owner's taste, is employed to write, or rather, to engrave, their characters on these talipot slips, which are very thick and tough. In order to render the charac

a half (nine feet) long, and about a foot broad; and in other parts of the East Indies, the leaves of the plantain tree are employed for the same purpose.

The eminent antiquary, Montfaucon, informs us that in 1699 he bought at Rome a book wholly composed of lead, about four inches in length, by three inches in width, and containing Egyptian Gnostic figures and unintelligible writing. Not only the two pieces which formed the cover, but also all the leaves (six in number), the stick inserted into the rings which held the leaves together, the hinges, and the nails, were all of lead, without exception. Antiquité Expliquée, tom. ii. p. 378. It is not known what has become of this curious article.

"The most ancient people, before the invention of books and before the use of sculpture upon stones and other small fragments, represented things great and noble upon entire rocks and mountains: the custom was not laid aside for many ages. Semiramis, to perpetuate her memory, is reported to have cut a whole rock into the shape of herself. Hannibal, long after the invention of books, engraved characters upon the Alpine rocks, as a testimony of his passage over them; which characters were remaining about two centuries ago, according to Paulus Jovius. It appears particularly to have been the custom of the northern nations, from that remarkable inscription mentioned by Saxo, and several ages after him delineated and published by Olaus Wormius. It was inscribed by Harold Hyldeland, to the memory of his father, and was cut out in the side of a rock, in Runic characters, each letter of the inscription being a quarter of an ell long, and the length of the whole thirty-four ells." (Wise's Letter to Dr. Mead, p. 25.) The custom was eastern as well as northern, as appears from that remarkable instance which occurs in Captain Hamilton's Account of the East Indies, vol. ii. p. 241. The author, after giving a short history of the successful attack which the Dutch made upon the island of Amoy in China, A. D. 1645, adds, "This history is written in large China characters on the face of a smooth rock, that faces the entrance of the harbour, and may be fairly seen as we pass out and into the harbour." Burder's Oriental Literature, vol. i. p. 535.

"At Karitena, it is still usual for schoolboys to have a small clean board, on which the master writes the alphabet, or any other lesson, which he intends his scholars to read. As soon as one lesson is finished, the writing is marked out or scraped out; and the board may thus be continually employed for writing new lessons. Not only does this instrument harmonize in its use with the writing-table mentioned in Luke i. 63.; but the Greeks call it by the very same name, vxxidov." Rev. John Hart. ley's Tour in Greece, in 1828. (Missionary Register, May, 1830. pp. 231, 232.) On this subject and on the substances generally employed for writing, both in ancient and modern times, see an Introduction to the Study of Bibliography, by the author of this work, vol. 1. pp. 31-72.

was to take an oath of cursing, it is said that the priest shall Eunuch, though probably reading to himself, and not parwrite the curses in a book, and blot them out with the bitter ticularly designing to be heard by his attendants, would water. It appears that these maledictions were written with read loud enough to be understood by a person at some disa kind of ink prepared for the purpose, without any calx of tance." iron or other material that could make a permanent dye; and were then washed off the parchment into the water which the woman was obliged to drink so that she drank the very words of the execration. The ink used in the East is almost all of this kind; a wet sponge will completely obliterate the finest of their writings. The ink was carried in an implement, termed by our translators an inkhorn, which was stuck into the girdle (Ezek. ix. 2, 3.), as it still is in the Levant.2

which, being struck against each other, made a hollow ring-it a part of their worship which they paid to the golden calf. ing sound. They form, in our days, a part of every military

ii. The Psaltery (NEBEL), obtained its name from its resemblance to a bottle or flagon: it is first mentioned in the Psalms of David, and the invention of it is ascribed to the Phoenicians. In Psal. xxxiii. 2. and exliv. 9. it is called a ten-stringed instrument, but in Psal. xcii. 3. it is distinguish-cribe those schools to him. It is not improbable that the ed from the latter. Josephus says, that it had twelve sounds (or strings), and was struck or played upon by the fingers.4