and correctness of defign to any fort in India, but too extenfive. It is thought to have coft two millions Sterling.-Indian cities are generally built on one plan; having very narrow, confined, and crooked ftreets, with an incredible number of refervoirs and ponds, and a great many gardens interfperfed. A few of the fireets are paved with brick. The houfes are variously built: Some of brick, others with mud, and a ftill greater proportion with bamboos and mats: and thefe different kinds of fabrics ftanding intermixed with each other, form a motley, appearance. Thofe of the latter kinds are invariably of one ftory, and covered with thatch: thofe of brick feldom exceed two floors, and have flat, terraced roofs. The two former claffes far out red to the Hyphefis, now Beyab, in his way to the GANGES, when his army refufed to go farther; fee p. 471, on account of the hardships which they had fuftained in the rainy feafon, Strab. xv. 697. and not without juft caufe; for it had rained inceffantly on them for leventy days, Diodor. xvii. 94. Alexander, it feems, was ignorant of the periodical heavy rains, which fall in this country during great part of the S. W. monfoon, at leaft in the months of July, August, and part of September: For he entered India in the spring, Arrian, iv. 22. when the rains were already begun in the mountains; and paffed the Hydafpes at Midfummer, about the height of the rainy feafon. This circumstance appears to have prevented him from completing the conquest of India. Tamerlane and Nadir Shah conducted their military operations during the dry feafon. A defcription of the periodical rains and inundations in India is given by Arrian, v. 9. and Strabo, xv. 691. Strabo, on the authority of Ariftobulus, mentions a curious fact, that though heavy rains and fnow fell in the mountains and the country along the foot of them, yet not fo much as a fhower fell in the plains below, ib. & 693. The fame thing has been obferved by the moderns, fee Major Rennel's memoir, p. 288. Alexander ordered fhips to be built on the Hydafpes to carry part of his army The distance is fuppofed to have been about down the Indus to the ocean. a thousand miles.The manners and cuftoms of the Indians in the time of Alexander, as defcribed by Arrian, were much the fame with thofe of the mo dern Hindoos. Arrian mentions, among other particulars, the flender and delicate make of their bodies, their dark complexion, their black uncurled hair; their garments of cotton, of an extraordinary whitenefs; their living entirely on vegetable food; their diftribution into feparate fects or claffes, and the perpetuation of trades in families; the marriages of women at feven years of age, and the prohibition of marriages between different claffes; the cuilom of wives burning themselves with their deceafed hufbands; the men wearing ear rings, particoloured fhoes, and veils covering the head and great part of the fhoulders; daubing their faces with colours; only the principal people having umbrellas carried over them; their using two-handed fwords, and bows drawn by the feet; &c. de reb. Indic. Strabo mentions most of thefe, and many other particulars, xv, 704. &c. The origin of the custom of burning the favourite wife with her husband is traced by Diodorus, xix. 33. & 34. Such as declined it, were held infamous, Strab. xv. 714.The account of Herodotus concerning India, though more imperfect and fabulous than thofe of later writers, yet contains feveral particulars, perfectly defcriptive of the prefent Hindoos; that they killed no animals, but contented themfelves with the produce of the lived carth; that they expofed thofe whofe recovery they defpaired of; that they 4 L 2 outnumber the laft, which are often fo thinly scattered, that fires, which frequently happen, do not, fometimes, meet with the obstruction of a brick houfe through a whole street.-The quarter of Calcutta inhabited by the English, is composed entirely of brick buildings; many of which have more the appearance of palaces than of private houfes: but by far the greateft part is built in the fame manner with other Indian cities. Calcutta is not fortunate in its local fituation; for it has some extenfive muddy lakes, and a vast forest, close to it. The greateft attention however has been used, by draining the streets and filling up the ponds, to render it healthful. About twenty-fix miles above Calcutta, on the fame river, though lived chiefly on rice; had horfes of a smaller breed than their western neigh bours; and manufactured their fine cotton wool in clothing, iii. 98-107. SELEUCUS, after the death of Alexander, became poffeffed of the principal provinces of the Perfian empire, and, among the reft, of the conquefts in India, which he confiderably enlarged. He concluded a treaty with SANDRACOTTUS, king of the Prafi or Gandarida, a powerful prince, whose capital was PALIBOTHRA, fuppofed by fome to be the modern Allababed, at the confluence of the two great rivers Jumna and Ganges. With a view of cultivating a friendly intercourfe with this monarch, Seleucus fent to him MEGASTHENES, as ambassador, who refided at Palibothra for several years, and upon his return publifhed an account of his travels; whence fubfequent writers derived most of their knowledge concerning the interior ftate of India. But the credit of Megafthenes was impaired, by his marvellous ftories of men with ears fo large that they could wrap themfelves up in them; of others with a fingle eye, without nofes, with long feet, and toes turned backwards; of people only three fpans in height (called PYGMIES, Plin. vi. 19. f. 22.); of ants as large as foxes, that dug up gold, &c. Strab. ii. 70. xv. 702. 706. & 711. See Mela, iii 7. His account, however, of the dimenfions and geography of India is found to be accurate; and his defcription of the power and opulence of the Prafii perfectly refembles that given of fome of the greater ftates "of modern Indoitan, before the establishment of the Mahomedan and European power in India, and is confonant to the accounts which Alexander had received concerning that people, that they were ready to oppose him on the banks of the Ganges with 20,000 cavalry, 2co,coo infantry, 2000 chariots, and 4000 elephants, Diodor. xvii. 93. Curt. ix. 2. Megafthenes mentions his having vifited Sandracottus when encamped with an army of 400,000 men, Strab. xv. 709. Palibotbra, he fays, was ten miles in length and two in breadth; furrounded with walls in which were 570 towers and 64 gates, ib. 702. Several Indian cities in modern times have had much larger dimenfions, Rennel's memoir, p. 50. Soon after the death of Seleucus, the Syrian monarchs loft their poffeffions in India; but how, or for what caufe, we are not told. Some years after, these Indian provinces became fubject to the kingdom of Bactria; which had origi nally been fubject to Seleucus, but under his fon or grandfon had become independent; and after having flourished 130 years, was overturned by an irruption of a powerful horde of Tartars. After this, for many ages, no attempt appears to have been made by any foreign power to establish itself in India. The kings of Egypt and Syria, and after them the Romans, aimed at nothing more than to fecure an intercourfe by trade with that opulent country; See p. 127. But neither the Greeks nor Romans though on the oppofite fide, is HOOGLY, a fmall, but ancient city. The French, Dutch, Danes, and Portuguese, have each of them a town and factory on this part of the river. The French fettlement of CHANDERNAGORE, and the Dutch one of CHINSURA, are both very neat, and pretty large towns; and each of them on a better fite than Calcutta. About one hundred and twenty miles above Calcutta stands MOORSHEDABAD, alfo on the western arm of the Ganges, which is there very low in the dry feafon. It was the capital of the Bengal provinces before the establishment of the British power, but is now much decayed.-The ancient capital of Bengal was GOUR, fuppofed to be the GANGIA REGIA of Ptolemy; Romans feem to have vifited the more eastern parts of it. They procured the productions of thofe countries only at fecond hand. Commerce was extinguished in the western part of the Roman empire, by the irruption of the barbarous nations; and the communication of the eastern empire with India by the Red-Sea and the Perfian gulf, was cut off by the conquefts of the Arabs. The Arabs, however, ftill continued to carry on the fame trade with India, and, with that ardour which characterifes all the early efforts of Mahomet's followers, advancing far beyond the boundaries of ancient navigation, brought many of the most precious commodities of the east from the countries which produced them. In order to engross the profits of this trade, the Caliph OMAR founded the city of BASSORA, on the western banks of the great stream formed by the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris; which foon became an emporium not inferior to Alexandria itself. The merchants of Conftantinople, excluded from their accustomed channel of trading with India, had recourfe to the ancient way of communication, over land to the banks of the Oxus, and down that river to the Caspian fea, See p. 127. By this mode of conveyance, perilous and difficult as it was, Europe was fupplied with the commodities of the caft for more than two centuries. Du ring that period, the Chriftians and Mahomedans were engaged in almost uninterrupted hoftilities; which, added to the antipathy caufed by their different religions, excited the keeneft animofity and hatred against each other. This was encreased and perpetuated by the crufades, fee p. 253. which, however, by their confequences, ferved again to open the ufual channel of Indian commerce, ib. During the space of fifty-feven years, that the Latins were in poffeffion of Conftantinople, fee p. 479. the Venetians, who had greatly contributed to the taking of that city, engroffed a cunfiderable part of its trade, particularly of that to India. When the Latins were expelled from Conftantinople, partly by the affiitance of the Genoefe, the rivals of the Venetians, among the other donations bestowed on the Genoefe for their fervices, they obtained PERA, the chief fuburb of Conftantinople, with fuch exemption from the accuftomed duties on goods imported and exported, as gave them a decided fuperiority over every competitor in trade. With the vigilant attention of merchants the Genoefe availed themfelves of this favourable fituation. They furrounded their new fettlement in Pera with fortifications. They rendered their factories on the adjacent coafts places of ftrength. They were mafters of the harbour of Conftantinople more than the Greeks themfelves. The whole trade of the Black Sea came into their hands; and, not fatisfied with this, they took poffeffion of the Cherfonefus Taurica, the modern Crimea, and made CAFFA, its principal city, the chief seat of their trade with the east. In confequence of this Fevolution, Genoa became the greatest commercial power in Europe; and had the lemy; extending along the north bank of the Ganges, twelve miles in length, and two or three in breadth. It now can only be traced from its ruins. Near its fite ftands the modern MAULDAH. The chief city in the east quarter of Bengal is DACCA, beyond the principal stream of the Ganges, although a very large branch of that river runs paft it. Dacca is most commodiously fituate for trade, having a communication with all the inland navigations. It is one hundred miles above the mouth of the Ganges, and one hundred and eighty by the road from Cal cutta. About the wifdom of its government been equal to the enterprifing industry and courage of its citizens, it might have long held that rank. But in this respect it was greatly inferior to Venice. The Venetians, to counterbalance the advantages recently acquired by their rivals, reforted to the ancient ftapies of Indian commodities, chiefly to Alexandria: and having concluded a treaty of commerce with the Soldans of Egypt, or Princes of the Mameluks, who were then in poffeflion alío of Syria, they made fettlements at Alexandria and Damafcus, appointing a conful to refide at each place, in a pubiic character, and to exercife a mercantile jurifdietion, under the authority of the Soldans. To fanction this intercourse with Infidels, they obtained a difpenfation from the Pope; a thing indispensably neceffary in that age, to filence the fcruples of the people. The Venetians derived much useful information concerning Indian commerce, from the fuccefsful enterprife of one of their own citizens, MARCO POLO; who having penetrated to the court of the Great Khan of Tartary, on the frontier of Cathay or China, and having gained the favour of that prince, during the courfe of twenty-fix years, partly employed in mercantile tranfactions, and partly in conducting negotiations with which the Great Khan entrusted him, explored many regions of the eaft, which no European had ever vifited. In the mean time the Genocfe, deprived of their Indian commerce upon the capture of Conftantinople by the Turks, a. 1453, and weakened by domeftic diffenfions, left the Venetians in the entire poffeffion of the trade to India, which raifed that people to the highest pitch of power and opulence. The merchants of Florence alfo obtained a fhare, though inconfiderable, in this commerce. The Venetians are thought to have carried on their trade to India with greater advantage than any other nation ever did; as they had no direct intercourse with that country, but purchased the commodities of the east, imported by the Mahomedans into Egypt and Syria, more frequently by barter for their own manufactures, than with ready money.Concerning the fubfequent changes which have taken place in this trade, fee p. 251. 489. & 519. The first conqueror of India in modern times was MAHMOOD, Emperor or Sultan of Ghizni, anciently Bactriana; whose capital city was Gbizni or Ġbazna, fituate among the western fources of the Indus. He entered Indoftan or Hindooflan, a. D. 1000; but in the course of eight years made no farther progress than MOULTAN, the modern capital of the country of the ancient Malli, at the conflux of the Fenaub or Chunab with the Indus, (which river is called by the natives Sinde or Sindeb,) about 800 miles from the fea. He afterwards conquered most of the country eastwards to the Ganges, deftroying in his way all the Pagodas or temples of the Hindoos, whom he treated with the most favage cruelty, and, from his furious zeal for Iflemifm, wifhed to exterminate. In the year 1184, his poflerity were expelled by the family of the Gaurides, fo called from Gaur About five hundred miles from the mouth of the Ganges is PATNA, the capital of Bahar, built along the fouth bank of the river; a very extenfive and populous city; fupposed to be the ancient Palibothra. Having been often the feat of war, it is fortified in the Indian manner, with a wall and a small citadel. It is a place of very confiderable trade. Moft of the faltpetre imported by the East-India Company is manufactured within the province of Bahar. About fixty miles above Patna is BENARES, the chief city of the diftrict or Zemindary of that name, (including alfo the Circars of Jianpour, Guzar, and Gazypour, the ancient feat of Braminical learning; a very rich and populous city, compactly built along the north bank of the Ganges. North or Chor, a country beyond the Indian Caucafus, who fixed their refidence at LAHORE, the capital of Panjab, or the country of the five rivers, fo called from its being contained between the five eastern branches of the Indus. Their prince MAHOMED GORI extended his dominion eastward, and having taken the city of BENARES, on the north bank of the Ganges, the ancient feat of Braminical learning, perpetrated there the most fhocking cruelties. About this period, as it is thought, the original language of the country, called the Sanferit or Sanfkreet language, began to decline in its purity, by the admixture of words from that of the conquerors: Thus being gradually changed, it has now become a dead language, as the Saxon in England, and is only preferved in an◄ cient writings, which are understood by none but the most learned Brahmins. After the death of Mahomed Gori, a. 1205, his empire was divided. The Indian part fell to CUTTUB, one of his generals, who founded the Patan or Algban dynafty in Hindooftan; fo called from the Afghans, who originally in habited that mountainous tract lying between India and Perfia, or the ancient Paropamilus. "Cattub removed the imperial refidence to DELHI or Debly, where, with a few interruptions, it has fince remained. The Patan dynasty continued to poffefs the throne of Delhi till the time of Mahmood III. in whofe reign, a. 1398. TIMUR or Tamerlane over-ran India, where he acted with fuch inhuman cruelty, that he got the title of the destroying Prince. He did not however change the order of fucceffion, but left Mahmood in poffeffion of the throne. He ftaid only five months in the country, being bent on his expedition against the Turks; fee p. 481. and carried very little plunder out of India. He died, a. 1405. After the death of Mahmood, a. 1413. the crown of Delhi devolved on CHIZER, a SEID, that is one of the race of the Prophet; whofe pofterity continued to enjoy it till the year 1450, when BELLOLI, an Afghan of the tribe of LODI, obtained it. His fon transferred the feat of empire to AGRA, (a. 1501.) In this reign the Portuguese first arrived in India. Under the family of Lodi the empire was torn by dreadful convulfions, which occafioned their expulfion. BABER, a defcendant of Tamerlane and Gengiz Kan, Sultan of the MOGUL Tartars poffefling the provinces between the Indus and Samarcand, being difpoffeffed of the northern part of his dominions by the Ubee Tartars, determined to try his fortune in Hindoostan, where the distracted state of the country flattered him with the hopes of conqueft. After repeated attempts he at laft fucceeded in defeating Ibrahim II. the emperor of Delhi, and thus put an end to the dynafty of Lodi, a. 1525. The countries which he and his fucceffors fubdued |