About two

tants are remarkable for their superstition. hundred miles north-west from Calhmere is CABUL, near the foot of the Indian Caucăfus, called alfo PAROPAMISUS or Imaus, now HINDO0-Ko, or the Stony Girdle, on the river Attock, a branch of the Indus, near its fource; the capital of a province of the fame name, which is beautifully diversified by hills and vallies. The city ftands in the moft delightful fituation, and is confidered as the gate of India towards Tartary. It is at prefent the capital of Timur Shaw, king of Candahar. The city of CANDAHAR is about one hundred and thirtyeight miles fouth-weft from Cabul. It is allowed to have been first built by Alexander, who called it after his own name ALEXANDRIA, Arrian. iii. 28. It is named, by way of difWhile the tinction, the Paropamifan Alexandria, Ib. iv. 22. Perfian and Mogul empires were undivided, Candahar was the frontier city and fortrefs of Hindooftan towards Perfia, and therefore not unfrequently changed mafters. About two hundred miles fouth from Cabul is ATTOCK, lat. 32° 27′ N. lon. 70° 36', on the eaft bank of the Indus, which, downwards to the conflux of the Chunaub or Jenaub, near Moultan,

is

The legal Emperor Shaw Allum, after various adventures, threw himself on the protection of the E glish, who employed his authority and name to fanction their right to the conquefts which they made by the able conduct of Colonel, afterwards Lord CLIVE, in the province of Bengal. The British power in India is chiefly owing to the fplendid victory of that fuccefsful commander over Sujab Dowlab and other powers, at the famous battle of Plaffey, June 1757Another great victory was gained, by Colonel now Sir Hector Munro, over Sujab Dorlab, Nabob of Oude, and Coffim Ally, Nabub of Bengal, at Buxar, a. 1764. The great inferiority of numbers with which thefe victorics were obtained, may ferve to diminish our incredulity with respect to the conquefts of Alexander. At the battle of Buxar the whole British forces did not exceed 7000, of whom only about 12co were Europeans; the battle of Plaffey was gained with an army of about 3000 men, and of thefe only goe were Europeans. Shab Allum, the nominal Emperor, weary of his dependance, and wifhing to better his circumftances, threw himfelf into the hands of the Mahrattas of Poonah, who promifed to restore him to his throne. But he is now confined at Delhi, as a ftate-prifoner, by SINDIA, the moft powerful Jaghiredar or chief of the Poonah or weftern Mahratta nation.

The chief powers in Hindooftan at prefent are the Mebratta ftates, the Nizam or Prince of the Deccan, Tippoo Saib. the Seiks, and the Britifs.

The British poffefs, in full fovereignty, the whole Soubah or province of Bengal, and the greatest part of Babar; which, with the diftrict of Benares, contain 162,000 fquare British riles of land, that is, near 30,000 more than are contained in Great Britain and Ireland; and near eleven millions of inhabitants. The grofs revenue, including the fubfidy paid by the Nabob of Oude, amounted, in 1788, to . 4,210,cco; and the neat revenue, after deducting military charges, civil eftablishments, &c. to £. 1,670.000. The territory of Madrass in the Carnatic is in comparifon inconfiderable. Its grofs revenue amounted to £. 1.070,000 but the heat revenue only to f. 85,000. At Bombay the disbursements exceeded the receipts by about £. 300,000.

The

is called the river of ATTOCK, i. e. forbidden, as being the o riginal boundary of Hindooftan on the north-west, and which it was unlawful for the fubjects of that empire to pass without fpecial permiffion. Attock is about two hundred miles northweft from Lahore, and alfo belongs to the Seiks. It is remarkable that this part of India, which was first known to Europeans, is now lefs known to us than almost any other.

The fprings of the Indus are commonly placed on the south fide of the mountains which feparate Indoftan from Tartary, anciently called Imaus, or the Indian Caucafu; but fome fuppose them to be far more remote. About one hundred and feventy miles from the fea, by the course of the river, the Indus divides into two branches, and forms a delta or a triangle, like the Nile. One of these branches again divides into two more, and forms another delta. About five miles below this second separation stands TATTA, the capital of the province of Sindy, fuppofed to be near the fite of the ancient Pattala. The lower part of this delta is interfected by rivers and creeks, like the delta of the Ganges; but, unlike that, it has no trees on it, the dry parts of it being covered with brufhwood; and the remainder,

The grofs revenue of the British dominions in India amounted, in 1792-3, to no lefs a fum than £. 8,245,560.-Large fums of money are ufually computed in India, by what are called Lacks of Rupees, each lack amounting to about ten thousand pounds Sterling.

The British nation, with their allies and tributaries, occupy the whole navigable courfe of the Ganges, from its entry on the plains to the sea; which, by its winding courfe, is more than 1350 British miles. The Indians measure by Coffes or Crores, each cofs being equal to nearly two English miles.

MANNERS and CUSTOMS of the INDIANS.

The Indians were confidered by the ancient Greeks and Romans as an indigenous race, and therefore called Autochthones or Aborigines, that is, natives of the foil, whofe origin could not be traced, Diodor. ii. 38. From the earliest accounts, they appear to have made great progrefs in induftry, art, and elegance. The wifdom of the caft is celebrated, I Kings, iv. 31. The whole body of the people was divided, as it ftill is, into four orders or cafts. The first confifts of philofophers and priefts, called Brahmins, and the more learned of them Pundits; the second, of magiftrates and foldiers; the third, of husbandmen and merchants; and the fourth, of artifans, labourers, and fervants. None of thefe can ever quit his own caft, or be admitted into another. The members of each caft alfo adhere invariably to the profeffion of their forefathers. From generation to generation, the fame families have followed, and will always continue to follow, one uniform way of life. Nor is it lawful for any one to marry into another caft, Diodor. ii. 41. Whoever violates the rules or inftitutions of his caft, is funk to the lowest state of degradation. No perfon of any caft will have the leaft communication with him, as was the cafe with thofe excommunicated by the Druids among the ancient Gauls and Britons, fee p. 494. Such perfon is called a Pariar or Chandala; and it is almost impoffible for words to exprefs the fenfation of vileness which this name conveys to the mind of a Hindoo. The divifion of the people into cafts is fuppofed to have proceeded from BRAHMA, who created the world

under

remainder, by much the greatest part, being noisome swamps, or muddy lakes. In the dry part a great many camels are reared, who feed on the brushwood. The upper part of the delta is well cultivated, and yields abundance of rice. It is remarkable, that the tide fhould not be visible in the Indus at a greater diftance than fixty or fixty-five miles from the fea. In the Ganges, the tides are perceptible at two hundred and forty miles from its mouth; and in the river of the Amazons, at fix hundred miles. The bore, or fudden influx of the tide in the mouth of the Indus, is high and dangerous; hence the mischief it did to the fleet of Alexander. The river Indus, and its branches, admit of an uninterrupted navigation from Tatta to Moultan, Lahore, and Cashmere, for veffels of near two hundred tuns.

The country along the Indus, for three hundred miles from its mouth, is called SINDY. Its breadth is different; in the widest part it is about one hundred and fixty miles. Sindy, in many particulars of foil and climate, and in the general appearance of its furface, resembles Egypt; the lower part of it being compofed of rich vegetable mould, and extended into a

wide

under the direction of the Supreme Being; and is therefore established not only by civil authority, but confirmed and fanctioned by religion. This inflitution, though it lays a restraint on the natural liberty of man, and must neceffarily fometimes check the exertions of genius, has brought the Indian manufactures to a degree of perfection fuperior to that of any other country, and has always preferved the trade of India with other nations nearly in the fame state. India continues ftill to fupply nearly the fame articles as in the time of Pliny Plin. xii. & xiii. and to drain thofe countries with which it trades of their gold and filver, as it did in ancient times; fee p. 128.—Some mention an additional caft, called Burrun Sunker, compofed of fuch as are produced by an unlawful union between perfons of different cafts. These are mostly dealers in petty articles of retail trade.

Although it be impoffible for a perfon of a lower caft to rife to a higher, yet in certain cafes, perfons of a higher clafs may exercise the occupations of a lower without lofing their caft by doing fo, Accordingly Brahmins are fometimes employed, not only as minifters of ftate, but as foldiers.Ancient authors reprefent the Indians as divided into feven kinds or orders, Strab. xv. 703.; Diodor. ii. 40.; Arrian. Indic. 10. mifled, as it is thought, by confidering fome of the fubdivifions of the cafts as diftin&t orders. They remark, that there were no Daves in India, Ib.

There is a number of devotees or religionifts in India, called Faquirs, whe voluntarily fubject themselves to fingular mortifications, and undergo the fevereft penances; on which account they are held in the highest veneration by the people. Thefe Strabo calls Germanes or Hylobii, xv. 713. and mentions one of them who flood a whole day on one leg, fupporting a large piece of wood with his hands, ib. 714.

The government in all the countries of India was monarchical; but limited and controuled by the fixed and inviolable privileges of the different cafts, particularly by the fancity and pre-eminence of the BRAHMINS, who would

deem

wide delta; while the upper part of it is a narrow flip of country, confined on one fide by a ridge or ridges of mountains, and on the other by a fandy defert; the river Indus, equal at least to the Nile, winding through the midst of this level valley, and annually overflowing it. During the months of July, Auguft, and part of September, which is the rainy feafon in moft other parts of India, the atmosphere is here generally clouded, but no rain falls, except very near to the fea. Indeed very few fhowers fall during the whole year. The prince of Sindy is tributary to the king of Candahar. He is a Mahomedan, and ufually refides at the fort of HYDRABAD, fituate on the Indus, a little above the head of the delta, and near the city NUSSERPOUR. The Hindoos are here treated with great rigour by their Mahomedan governors, which drives numbers of them into other countries.

On the north-east of Sindy lie the territories of the Seiks; on the north, thofe of the king of Candahar; on the weft is Makran, anciently Gedrofia, a province of Perfia, whofe prince is tributary to the king of Candahar. A fandy defert bounds Sindy on the east, extending near five hundred and fifty miles

in

deem it degradation and pollution, if they were to eat of the fame food with their fovereign. Their perfons are facred, and even for the most heinous crimes they cannot be capitally punished; their blood muft never be shed. On important occafions, it is the duty of fovereigns to confult them, and to be directed by their advice. In ancient times, at a folemn affembly, called the great Synod, (Miyuan Zurodos,) which used to be held at the beginning of every year, all the Brahmins affembling at the palace of the king, give their opinion about the adminiftration of public affairs; concerning the ftate of agriculture and paturage, Strab. xv. 703. f. and whatever elfe they judged of advantage to thofe who were prefent, Diodor. ii. 40. The government of the Mahrattas at prefent is moftly ariftocratical.

The monarchs of India were confidered as the great proprietors of the land, as is ftill the cafe in the great empires of the eaft, See p. 631. The husbandmen, now called RYOTS, paid as rent ufually the fourth of the produce of their farms, Strab. Dicdur. ibid. As long as the hufbandman paid the eftablished rent, he retained poffeffion of the farm, which defcended, like property, from father to fon. Before the original initutions of India were fubverted by foreign invaders, the industry of the hufbandman, on which every member of the community depended for fubfiitence, was as fecure as the tenure by which he held his larids was equitable. It was not uncommon, as we learn from Strabo, xv. 704. for two hoftile armies to be fighting in one field, while the pea fants were ploughing or digging with perfect fafety in the next. The great eft attention was paid to render the condition of thofe who cultivated the ground comfortable. Various officers were appointed for this purpose. One clafs of them had the charge of the TANKS or public refervoirs of water, without a re gular diftribution of which, fields in a torrid climate cannot be rendered fertile. Thofe who collect the rents from the Ryots, and parcel out the lands among them, are called ZEMINDARS; who, it is fuppofed, were at first appointed only during pleasure, but afterwards became hereditary. On this fubject, how

in length, and from one hundred to one hundred and fifty in breadth, mentioned by Herodotus, iii. 98. Owing to the want of rain in Sindy, and its vicinity to this defert, the heats in summer are so violent, and the winds which blow from the defert so pernicious, that the houses are contrived fo as to be occafionally ventilated by means of apertures on the tops of them, resembling the funnels of small chimnies. When the hot winds prevail, the windows are clofely fhut, by which means the hottest of the current of air (that nearest the furface of the earth, of course) is excluded; and a cooler part, because more elevated, defcends into the house through the funnels. By this means also vaft clouds of duft are excluded, the entry of which alone would be fufficient to render the houfes uninhabitable. The roofs are composed of thick layers of earth, instead of terraces. Few countries are more unwholsome to European conftitutions, particularly the lower part of the delta. Along the banks of the Indus, the fishermen and graziers form moveable villages or towns, because they are continually changing their pofitions like a camp; as, Arrian informs us, was obferved by Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander's

ever, there are different opinions. In the time of ACBAR, the lands were valued, and the rent of each inhabitant and of each village ascertained. The annual amount of revenue then fixed, and the mode of levying it, continued with little variation in the province of Bengal to the year 1757, when Jaffeer Ali Cawn, being created Nabob of Arcot by the English, after the battle of Plaffey, was obliged to depart from the wife arrangements of Acbar, and introduce new modes of affeffment, that he might raise the sum which he had stipulated to pay on his elevation.

There were various other officers who had different tasks affigned them, which are described, Strab. xv. 707. &c. Diodor. ii. 41. Among the reft, fome took care to provide accommodation and lodgings for ftrangers, Ib. Such houfes are now called Choultries, and are frequent in every part of the country. The greatest attention was paid to the making of highways; and ftones were erected at the end of every ten fadia, to mark the distances, and direct travellers, Ib. The ancient Indians lived moftly on rice, as the Hindoos do ftill, Strab. xv. 709. They had no written laws; and fuits were determined according to the principles of equity, Ib. The first who published a compendium of Indian jurifprudence was ACBAR, by the affiftance of his Vizier Abel Fazel, in the code called Ayeen Akbery.

All buildings, of whatever kind, confecrated to the offices of religion, are called PAGODAS. Of these the most ancient is thought to be that in the iland of Elephanta, at no great distance from Bombay; which is an excavation hewn out of a folid rock, about half way up a high mountain, and formed into a fpacious area, nearly 120 feet fquare; with human figures, in high relief of gigantic fize and fingular forms, on the infide. There are various pagodas of this kind in the isle of Salfette, ftill nearer to Bombay.Inftead of caverns, apparently the original places of worship, temples came to be raised by the Indians in honour of their deities; at firft in the form of a large pyramid, with no other light but what came from a fmall door, as at Doegur, 4 N