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measures and tones, with rules for composing, and other practical parts of ancient and modern music. The first book is entitled, "Foromino, o Dialogo, nel quale si contengono le vere & necessarie Regole di intavolare la Musica nel Lutto," 1569, folio. He likewise wrote a defence of it, entitled "Dialogo della Musica antica & moderna in suo Difeso contra Joseffo Zarlino," 1602, folio. Moreri. Landi's Hist. de la Lit. d'Italie, vol. V. liv. xiii. art. 2. Martin's Biog. Phil. Maclaurin's Account of Sir I. Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, B. I. ch. iii. Hutton's Math. Dict.-M.

GALLAND, ANTONY, a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, eminent for his Oriental knowledge, was born of mean parentage at Rollo in Picardy, in 1646. He received his early education at the college of Noyon, whence he was taken in order to be put to some trade. But his inclination for literature carried him to Paris, where he pursued his studies under M. Petitpied, a doctor of the Sorbonne, and afterwards at the college of Mazarin. Becoming particularly conversant with the Oriental languages, he was taken as a companion by M. de Nointel in his embassy to Constantinople and the Levant, where he collected a rich treasure of inscriptions and drawings of antiquities. Returning to Paris in 1675, he made acquaintance with Vaillant and other medalists, who engaged him in a second voyage to the Levant. He went thither a third time in 1679, partly at the expence of the French East-India company, and partly at that of Colbert. In this tour he perfected his knowledge of the principal modern Oriental languages, and made numerous observations. On his return, he was employed by Thevenot, the king's librarian; and after the death of d'Herbelot he continued the publication of his Biblioth. Orientale, and wrote the preface of it. He was appointed royal professor of Arabic in 1709. He died in 1715, at the age of sixty-nine. Galland was a man of simple manners, wholly attached to study, and careless about the ordinary objects of life. Of his works, none is so well known as his version of the Arabian tales, called "The Thousand and One Nights," which has become a popular book throughout Europe. Its authenticity is at present not doubted, though he has probably taken liberties with the original. He published various other pieces translated from the eastern languages, and several explanations of medals and other matters of antiquity in the Mem. of the Academy of Inscriptions, Mem. de Trevoux, and other collections. Moreri.-A.

GALLAND, AUGUSTUS, a French lawyer and historian of the seventeenth century, was attorney-general of Navarre, and a counsellor of state. He was extremely well versed in legal and historical antiquities, as he proved by several learned writings. One of the most celebrated of these was that which he composed against the allodial rights pretended by some of the provinces of written law, to which he added the laws given to the Albigenses by Simon de Montfort. This work was first published at Paris in 1629, and he gave a much augmented edition in 1637. He likewise published in 1637 several little treatises relative to the ancient banners, &c. of France. He is supposed to have died about 1644. His son, in 1648, published his Memoirs for the history of Navarre and Flanders. A "Discours au Roi," concerning the origin, progress, &c. of the city of Rochelle, published anonymously in 1628 and 1629, is ascribed to this author. Many genealogies of noble families drawn up by his hand, are (or were) preserved in different libraries. Moreri.-A.

GALLE', SERVATIUS (in Latin Gallaus), a learned Dutch divine, and pastor of the Walloon church at Haarlem, died at Campen in the year 1709. He was the editor of a beautiful and excellent edition of Lactantius, "cum Notis variorum," printed by Hackius, 1660, 8vo.; and the author of "Dissertationes de Sybillis, earumque Oraculis," 1688, 4to.; and of a new impression, with enlargements and corrections, of Opsopeus's edition of the Sybilline oracles, entitled "Sybillina Oracula, ex veteribus Codicibus, emendata & restituta, &c. accedunt Oracula Magica Zoroastris, Jovis, Apollinis, &c. Gr. & Lat. cum Notis variorum, &c." 1689, 4to. Some time before his death he had also begun a new edition of Minutius Felix, which he did not live to complete. Fabricii Bibl. Grac. vol. I. lib. i. cap. 32. Moreri. Dict. Bibl. Hist. & Crit.-M.

GALLIENUS, P. LICINIUS, Roman emperor, son of Valerian, was raised to the purple by his father at his accession in 253, being then eighteen or twenty years of age. He was immediately sent to the banks of the Rhine, in order to oppose an incursion of the Germans or Franks into Gaul; and with the aid of the able general Posthumus, he obtained several advantages over them. At this period the Roman empire was invaded on all sides by the surrounding barbarians; and a war with the Persians produced the defeat and captivity of Valerian in 260. Gallienus received the intelligence of this disaster with an affectation of philosophy,

which ill concealed his pleasure at the removal of a partner and a superior. He thenceforth reigned alone, and gave full display to a character which has ranked him with the worst of the Roman emperors. He possessed a lively genius, which enabled him to succeed in a variety of pursuits, but his inconstancy and want of judgment rendered him a trifler, and unfitted him for the more weighty duties of his station. "He was," says Gibbon, "a master of several curious but useless sciences, a ready orator and elegant poet, a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and most contemptible prince." He amused himself with philosophy; and was, it is said, upon the point of giving Plotinus, the Platonist, a ruined city for the purpose of making the experiment of Plato's republic. He was habitually voluptuous and indolent; yet at times, under some sudden emotion, he appeared either the intrepid warrior, or the merciless tyrant. The inconsequence of his character, together with the circumstances of the times, produced the temporary elevation of a multitude of competitors in different parts of the empire; and the reign of Gallienus is the era of that confused and turbulent period usually call ed that of the thirty tyrants, but whose real number was not more than nineteen. Of these, several were persons of much greater merit than the regular possessor of the throne, and all ideas of hereditary right were confounded by the military and tumultuary election of so many emperors. It is not intended here to pursue the involved history of this period: it will suffice to mention some of those events which more particularly display the character of Gallienus. The revolt of Posthumus in Gaul, was attended with the murder of an infant son of the emperor. He was, however, so little affected with the loss of that great province, that he said with a philosophical smile, "Is the state ruined because we are no longer to have stuffs of Arras?" It was fortunate that the vigour of that usurper kept the surrounding barbarians from encroaching upon his frontier. The Illyrian rebellion, headed by Ingenuus, seems to have excited his utmost indignation. After its suppression, he vented his anger in this savage mandate to one of his ministers: "It is not enough that you exterminate those who have appeared in arms; the male sex of every age must be extirpated-let every one die who has dropt an expression, or even entertained a thought, against me-tear, kill, hew in pieces." Odenathus, prince of Palmyra, by his fidelity and services to the empire, stands honourably apart from the rivals of the throne. He re

pressed the incursions of the victorious Sapor king of Persia, and rescued the eastern provinces. Gallienus, through policy or gratitude, raised him to the rank of Augustus; and indulged his own vanity in a triumph on account of his victories. The emperor appears occasionally to have acted with vigour against his numerous enemies, and either by his exertions, or those of his lieutenants, they almost all came to a violent end. He was, however, nearly confined to the possession of Italy, for which itself he was at length obliged to contend against the rebel Aureolus. Gallienus defeated him, and besieged him in Milan. A conspiracy was there formed against the emperor by his own officers; and upon the alarm of a sally from Aureolus, as he proceeded on horseback to the spot without his guards, he received a wound from an uncertain hand, of which he died in a few hours. The treason was com pleted by the subsequent massacre of his brother and remaining son. Gallienus was killed in March 268, after a reign of fifteen years including his partnership with his father; of eight years, alone. His memory was treated with execration at Rome, but his successor Claudius honoured him with the accustomed deification. Univers. Hist. Gibbon. Crevier. -A.

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GALLONIUS, ANTHONY, a priest of the congregation of the Oratory at Rome, who flourished in the sixteenth century, was a native of that city, and died there in the year 1605. He was the author of "A History of Virgins," 1591, 4to.; "The Lives of certain Martyrs,' 1597, 4to.; "The Life of St. Philip Neri," founder of the congregation of the Oratory, in 8vo.; and, "Apologeticus Liber pro Assertis in Annalibus Ecclesiasticis Baronianis de Monachatu Sancti Gregoriæ Papæ, &c." 1604, 4to. But the most celebrated of his works, and the most interesting to curiosity, is a treatise on the different kinds of cruelties inflicted by the pagans on the martyrs of the primitive church; illustrated by engravings of the instruments of torture made use of by them, taken not only from the accounts of the acts of the martyrs, many of which are of questionable authority, but also from ancient authors of indisputable credit, profane as well as ecclesiastical. The first edition of it was in Italian, and entitled "Trattato de gli Instrumenti di Martirio, &c." 1591, 4to. with copper-plates executed by the celebrated Anthony Tempesta. This work the author translated into Latin, and published it at Rome in 1594, 4to. with the title, “De Sanctorum Martyrum Cruciatibus, &c." illus

trated with wooden prints. Afterwards it underwent different impressions at Paris, Antwerp, &c. Mereri. Bayle. Dict. Bibl. Hist. & Crit.-M.

GALLUCCI, JOHN-PAUL, a learned Italian astronomer, who flourished in the sixteenth century. He was a fellow of the Academy at Venice, and contrived an instrument, which was found serviceable in observing the celestial phenomena before the invention of the telescope. He was the author of several astronomical works, and some on physic, which display a considerable acquaintance with the state of science as it existed in his time, and a commendable ardour for its improvement; but not unmixed with the fanciful notions which then prevailed concerning the influence of the heavenly bodies, in their different positions, on the human frame and constitution. The principal of them are: "Theatrum Mundi & Temporis," 1589, folio; "De Themate Erigendo, Parte Fortunæ, Divisione Zodiaci, Dignitatibus Planetarum & Temporibus ad Medicandum Accommodatis, &c." 1584, folio; "Speculum Uranicum," 1593, folio; "Cælestium Corporum, & Rerum ab ipsis pendentium, Explicatio," 1605, folio; " Della Fabrica del nuovo Orologio universale, e Uso di nuovo Stromento per fare gli Orologi solari," 1590, 4to.; and "Della Fabrica & Uso di diversi Strometi di Astronomia & Cosmographia," 1597, 4to. To the above might be added, translations from the works of Reisch, Albert Durer, &c. of which the titles may be found in Moreri. Bayle. Nouv. Dict. Hist.-M.

GALLUS, CORNELIUS, a Roman poet and man of rank, was born about B.C. 69, at Forum Julii, which may be either Frejus in Provence, or Friuli in Italy. Of his life few incidents are known. One of the most interesting circumstances in it was his intimacy with Virgil, whom he was probably the means of introducing to Mæcenas. That poet has inscribed his tenth eclogue with the name of Gallus, whose desertion by his mistress Lycoris is the subject of the composition. Gallus himself wrote four books of elegies to the honour of this mistress, which raised him to a high rank among the poets of this class, and appear to have been extremely popular. Thus Ovid, enumerating the poets, to whom he predicts immortality, says

Gallus & Hesperiis, & Gallus notus Eois,
Et suo cum Gallo nota Lycoris erit.

AMOR. I. 15.
Gallus from East to West shall spread his name,
And fair Lycoris share her poet's fame.

Propertius, Martial, and other ancients, also mention him with applause. His Lycoris is supposed to have been the Cytheris who captivated Mark Antony, and was carried about by him in such indecent triumph. Gallus was intimately connected with Asinius Pollio; and he was employed by Augustus in his war against Antony and Cleopatra, and so well approved his valour and conduct that he was afterwards appointed to the government of all Egypt. But this elevation proved his ruin; for, being charged with peculation, and, as some assert, with conspiracy, he was deprived of all his property, and condemned to exile. Unable to bear this disgrace, he put an end to his life in his forty-third year. None of his writings have reached modern times; but Servius affirms that there are several of his lines inserted in the eclogue of Virgil above mentioned. Some elegies, which were published under his name in the beginning of the sixteenth century, are undoubtedly supposititious. Besides his pieces on Lycoris, it is known that he translated into Latin verse some books of the Greek poet Euphorion. Vossii Poet. Lat. Moreri. Tiraboschi.-A.

He

GALLUS, C. VIBIUS TREBONIANUS, one of the short-lived emperors of Rome, was a native of Meninx, an island on the coast of Africa, now Gerbi; and a principal officer under Decius at the time when that emperor lost his life in an action with the Goths. Gallus is accused by some historians of contriving his destruction by means of a correspondence with the Goths, but such a supposition is unnecessary to account for the even. A military election immediately conferred the vacant purple upon Gallus, A.D. 251. His age at his elevation, according to one account, was fiftyseven, according to another, forty-five. displayed his attachment to the memory of his former master by placing him in the rank of Gods, and more substantially by associating his surviving son Hostilianus with him in the empire. He found himself obliged to purchase the retreat of the victorious Goths by suffering them to retain their booty and captives, and agreeing to pay them an annual tribute. He then returned to Rome, where he gave himself up to an effeminate and voluptuous life, which, together with the ignominy he had brought upon the empire, rendered him contemptible and odious to his subjects. The public calamities were aggravated by a terrible pestilence, which carried off numbers of people, and among them probably the young emperor Hostilianus, though the hatred to Gallus ascribed

his death to poison administered by his orders. A revival of the Decian persecution of the Christians in this reign was probably owing to a superstitious notion of thereby conciliating the favour of the gods, and averting the evils which pressed upon the empire. One of these was a new irruption of the barbarians into the bordering provinces, which eventually proved the destruction of Gallus. Æmilianus, governor of Masia and Pannonia, gave a signal defeat to the invaders on that part, in consequence of which success he was proclaimed emperor by his troops. Upon the news of this revolt, Gallus marched to oppose his rival, and they met near Interamna, in Italy. A civil war was prevented by the murder of Gallus and his son and partner Volusianus, by his own troops, and Emilianus succeeded without opposition. This was in 253, after Gallus had reigned about two years. Univers. Hist. Crevier. Gibbon.-A.

GALLUS, CESAR, son of Julius-Constantius, the brother of Constantine the Great, was born about 326. His true name was FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS CONSTANTIUS, nor is it known why historians have called him Gallus. He, with his brother Julian (afterwards emperor), were the only princes of the collateral Flavian race who were spared in the massacre which took place after the death of Constantine. After an education in a state of honourable imprisonment, Gallus was suddenly, in his twenty-fifth year, A.D. 351, raised by his cousin the emperor Constantius to the rank of Cæsar, and married to his sister Constantina. Antioch was appointed for his residence, and he was charged with the government of the eastern provinces, and their defence against the Persians. In this he was successful; and he is likewise praised for the zeal with which he promoted the Christian worship at Antioch, and his substitution of the bones of St. Babylas to the shrine of Apollo in the celebrated grove of Daphne. But either his own bad natural disposition, or that of his wife (who is described as a female fury), soon plunged him into great extravagancies, and his administration became detestable for its cruelty, pride, and rapacity. He was violent and suspicious, and sometimes condescended himself to assume the character of a spy under a disguise. Many persons of rank were put to death in consequence of his jealousy and enmity. At length the emperor Constantius was apprised of his conduct, and sent two delegates to admonish him and reform his government. Their haughty behaviour so irritated the violent temper of Gallus, that he caused them both to be

VOL. IV.

seized, bound, and after being dragged through the streets of Antioch, to be thrown into the river. After this step he had nothing to expect but punishment from the imperial court; he was therefore very reluctant to comply with the artful invitation of Constantius to come and visit him at Milan. The death of Constantina, who was going to appease her brother, aggravated his danger. At length he set out with a numerous train; but he soon found himself closely watched by the imperial ministers; and upon his arrival at Adrianople, an order met him to leave behind him his retinue and proceed with a few post-carriages. When he came to Petovio in Pannonia, he was arrested by a military officer, stript of his ensigns of dignity, and carried away to imprisonment at Pola in Istria. There he underwent a severe interrogation from an eunuch, his enemy; and, after confessing the charges brought against him, he was beheaded like a common malefactor. This catastrophe took place in 354, the fourth year after his elevation. Univers. Hist. Gibbon.-A.

GALLY, HENRY, a learned English divine, was born at Beckenham in Kent, in the year 1696, and admitted a pensioner of Bene't college, Cambridge, in 1714, of which house he became a scholar in the following year. He took his degree of M.A. in 1721; and was in the same year chosen lecturer of St. Paul's, Covent-garden, in London, and instituted to the rectory of Wavenden, or Wanden, in Buckinghamshire. In 1725 he was appointed his domestic chaplain by the lord-chancellor King, who preferred him to a prebend in the cathedral church of Gloucester, in 1728. In the year last mentioned, he was admitted to the degree of doctor of divinity at Cambridge, when king George II. honoured that university with his presence. In 1730 the lord-chancellor presented him to the rectory of Ashton in Northamptonshire, and not long afterwards promoted him to a prebend in the cathedral church of Norwich. Dr. Gally's next preferment was the rectory of St. Giles's in the Fields, in 1732; and in 1735 he was nominated chaplain in ordinary to his majesty. He died in the year 1769. Besides "Two Sermons on the Misery of Man," published in 1723, and "A Sermon preached before the House of Commons upon the Accession," in 1739, he was the author of a translation from the Greek of "The Morals of Theophrastus, with Notes, and a Critical Essay on Characteristic Writing," 1728, 8vo.; "The Reasonableness of Church and College Fings

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asserted, and the Right which Churches and Colleges have in their Estates defended," 1731, 8vo.; "Some Considerations upon Clandestine Marriages," 1750, 8vo.; " A Dissertation against pronouncing the Greek Language according to Accents," 1754, 8vo.; and "A Second Dissertation on the same Subject, in Answer to Mr. Forster's Essay on the different Nature of Accent and Quantity," 1763, 8vo. Nichols's Anecdotes of Bowyer.-M.

GALVANI, LEWIS, a modern physiologist, who has had the honour of giving his name to a supposed new principle in nature, was born in 1737 at Bologna, where several of his relations had distinguished themselves in jurisprudence and theology. From his early youth he was much disposed to the greatest austerities of the catholic religion, and particularly frequented a convent, the monks of which attached themselves to the solemn duty of visit. ing the dying. He shewed an inclination to enter into this order, but was diverted from it by one of the fraternity. Thenceforth he devoted himself to the study of medicine in its different branches. His masters were the doctors Beccari, Tacconi, Galli, and especially the professor Galeazzi, who received him into his house, and gave him his daughter in marriage. In 1762 he sustained with reputation an inaugural thesis, "De Ossibus," and was then created public lecturer in the university of Bologna, and appointed reader in anatomy to the institute in that city. His excellent method of lecturing drew a crowd of auditors; and he employed his leisure in experiments and in the study of comparative anatomy. He made a number of curious observations on the urinary organs, and on the organ of hearing in birds, which were published in the Memoirs of the Institute. His reputation as an anatomist and physiologist was established in the schools of Italy, when accident gave birth to the discovery which has immortalised his name. His beloved wife, with whom he lived many years in the tenderest union, was at this time in a declining state of health. As a restorative she made use of a soup of frogs; and some of these animals, skinned for the purpose, happened to lie upon a table in her husband's laboratory, upon which was placed an electrical machine. One of the assistants in his experiments chanced carelessly to bring the point of a scalpel near the crural nerves of a frog lying not far from the conductor. Instantly the muscles of the limb were agitated with strong convulsions. Madame Galvani, a woman of quick understanding and a scientific turn, was present; and struck with

the phenomenon, she immediately went to inform her husband of it. He came and repeated the experiment; and soon found that the convulsion only took place when a spark was drawn from the conductor at the time the scalpel was in contact with the nerve. It would be tedious, and in this place unnecessary, to mention the long series of experiments, most ingeniously varied, by which he proceeded to investigate the law of nature of which accident had thus given him a glimpse. His conclusion from the whole was, that all animals are.endued with an electricity of a peculiar nature, and inherent in their economy, to which he gives the name of animal electricity; that it is contained in most parts, but chiefly manifests itself in the nerves and muscles; and that it is secreted by the brain and distributed by the nerves to the different parts of the body. He compares each muscular fibre to a small Leyden phial, and endeavours to explain the phenomena of muscular motion by analogies drawn from the charging and discharging of that instrument. He applies his theory to explain various facts in pathology, relative to rheumatic, convulsive, paralytic, and other nervous affections. The first publication of Galvani on this new subject was, 66 Aloysii Galvani de Viribus Electricitatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius," 1791, 4to. printed for the institute of Bologna. It immediately excited the notice of philosophers both in Italy and other countries, and was followed by numerous publications in which new experiments were related, and different opinions supported. In particular, the celebrated Volta took up the subject, and adduced many arguments to prove that Galvani's notion of a peculiar animal electricity is erroneous, and that the phenomena are derived only from the general electric matter of the atmosphere, of the action of which the nerves are more sensible tests than any other substances. This latter opinion seems to have been gaining ground among philosophical enquirers, though the notion of a peculiar galvanic fluid still meets with supporters. Galvani still proceeded in his enquiries, and made many experiments upon the innate electricity in the torpedo, as a subject intimately connected with his discovery. He also examined with minuteness into the different effects of the homogeneity and heterogeneity of the metals employed in forming the arch of communication by which the galvanic phenomena are excited; a circumstance which promises much future information of the nature of electricity, and has been particularly pursued by M. Volta. On the whole, though Galvani adhered to his first

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