yet free; because the indifferency of that my operative power to act, or not to act, still remains; the power of moving my hand, is not at all impaired by the determination of my will, which at present orders rest; the indifferency of that power to act, or not to act, is just as it was before, as will appear, if the will puts it to the trial, by ordering the contrary. But if, during the rest of my hand, it be seized by a sudden palsy, the indifferency of that operative power is gone, and with it, my liberty; I have no longer freedom in that respect, but am under a necessity of letting my hand rest. On the other side, if my hand be put into motion by a convulsion, the indifferency of that operative faculty is taken away by that motion, and my liberty in that case is lost; for I am under a necessity of having my hand move. I have added this, to shew in what sort of indifferency liberty seems to me to consist, and not in any other, real or imaginary.

§72. True notions concerning the nature and extent of liberty, are of so great importance, that I hope I shall be pardoned this digression, which my attempt to explain it has led me into. The ideas of will, volition, liberty, and necessity, in this chapter of power, came naturally in my way. In a former edition of this treatise, I gave an account of my thoughts concerning them, according to the light I then had: and now, as a lover of truth, and not a worshipper of my own doctrines, I own some change in my opinion, which I think I have discovered ground for. In what I first writ, I, with an unbiassed indifferency, followed truth whither I thought she led me. But neither being so vain as to fancy infallibility, nor so disingenuous as to dissemble my mistakes, for fear of blemishing my reputation, I have, with the same sincere design for truth only, not been ashamed to publish what a severer inquiry has suggested. It is not impossible, but that some may think my former notions right, and some (as I have already found) these latter; and some neither. I shall not at all wonder at this variety in men's opinions: impartial deductions of reason in controverted points being so rare, and exact ones in abstract notions not so very easy, especially if of any length. And, therefore, I should think myself not a little beholding to any one, who would upon these, or any other grounds, fairly clear this subject of liberty from any difficulties that may yet remain.

Before I close this chapter, it may perhaps be to our purpose, and help to give us clearer conceptions about power, if we make our thoughts take a little more exact survey of action. I have said above, that we have ideas but of two sorts of action, viz. motion and thinking. These, in truth, though called and counted actions, yet, if nearly conconsidered, will not be found to be always perfectly so. For, if I mistake not, there are instances of both kinds, which, upon due consideration, will be found rather passions than actions, and, consequently, so far the effects barely of passive powers in those subjects, which yet, on their accounts, are thought agents. For, in these instances, the substance that hath motion or thought, receives the impression, whereby it is put into that action purely from without, and so acts merely by the capacity it has to receive such an impression from some external agent; and such a power is not properly an active power, but a mere passive capacity in the subject. Sometimes the substance, or agent, puts itself

into action by its own power, and this is properly active power. Whatsoever modification a substance has, whereby it produces any effect, that is called action; v. g. a solid substance by motion operates on, or alters, the sensible ideas of another substance, and, therefore, this modification of motion we call action. But yet, this motion in that solid substance is, when rightly considered, but a passion, if it received it only from some external agent. So that the active power of motion is in no substance which cannot begin motion in itself, or in another substance, when at rest. So likewise in thinking, a power to receive ideas or thoughts, from the operation of any external substance, is called a power of thinking: but this is but a passive power or capacity. But to be able to bring into view, ideas out of sight, at one's own choice, and to compare which of them one thinks fit, this is an active power. This reflection may be of some use to preserve us from mistakes about powers and actions, which grammar, and the common frame of languages, may be apt to lead us into: since what is signified by verbs that grammarians call active, does not always signify action; v. g. this proposition, I see the moon, or a star, or I feel the heat of the sun, though expressed by a verb active, does not signify any action in me, whereby I operate on those substances; but the reception of the ideas of light, roundness, and heat, wherein I am not active, but barely passive, and cannot, in that position of my eyes, or body, avoid receiving them. But when I turn my eyes another way, or remove my body out of the sun-beams, I am properly active; because of my own choice, by a power within myself, I put myself into that motion. Such an action is the product of active power.

§ 73. And thus I have, in a short draught, given a view of our original ideas, from whence all the rest are derived, and of which they are made up; which, if I would consider as a philosopher, and examine on what causes they depend, and of what they are made, I believe they all might be reduced to these very few primary and original ones, viz., extension, solidity, mobility, or the power of being moved; which by our senses, we receive from body; perceptivity, or the power of perception or thinking; motivity, or the power of moving: which, by reflection, we receive from our minds. I crave leave to make use of these two new words, to avoid the danger of being mistaken in the use of those which are equivocal. To which, if we add existence, duration, number, which belong both to the one and the other, we have, perhaps, all the original ideas on which the rest depend. For, by these, I imagine, might be explained the nature of colours, sounds, tastes, smells, and all other ideas we have, if, we had but faculties acute enough to perceive the severally modified extensions and motions of these minute bodies, which produce those several sensations in us. But my present purpose being only to inquire into the knowledge the mind has of things, by those ideas and appearances which God has fitted it to receive from them, and how the mind comes by that knowledge, rather than into their causes, or manner of production; I shall not, contrary to the design of this essay, set myself to inquire, philosophically, into the peculiar constitution of bodies, and the configuration of parts, whereby they have the power to produce in us the ideas of their sensible qualities. I

shall not enter any farther into that disquisition, it sufficing to my purpose to observe, that gold or saffron has a power to produce in us the idea of yellow; and snow or milk, the idea of white; which we can only have by our sight, without examining the texture of the parts of those bodies, on the particular figures or motion of the particles which rebound from thence, to cause in us that particular sensation; though when we go beyond the bare ideas in our minds, and would inquire into their causes, we cannot conceive any thing else to be in any sensible object, whereby it produces different ideas in us, but the different bulk, figure, number, texture, and motion of its insensible parts.

CHAP. XXII.

OF MIXED MODES.

§ 1. Mixed modes, what.-Having treated of simple modes in the foregoing chapters, and given several instances of some of the most considerable of them, to shew what they are, and how we come by them : we are now, in the next place, to consider those we call mixed modes: such are the complex ideas we mark by the names, obligation, drunkenness, a lie, &c., which, consisting of several combinations of simple ideas of different kinds, I have called mixed modes, to distinguish them from the more simple modes, which consist only of simple ideas of the same kind. These mixed modes being also such combinations of simple ideas, as are not looked upon to be characteristical marks of any real beings, that have a steady existence, but scattered and independent ideas, put together by the mind, are thereby distinguishable from the complex ideas of substances.

§2. Made by the mind. That the mind, in respect of its simple ideas, is wholly passive, and receives them all from the existence and operations of things, such as sensation or reflection offers them, without being able to make any one idea, experience shews us. But if we attentively consider these ideas I call mixed modes, we are now speaking of, we shall find their original quite different. The mind often exercises an active power in making these several combinations; for it being once furnished with simple ideas, it can put them together in several compositions, and so make variety of complex ideas, without examining whether they exist so together in nature. And hence I think it is, that these ideas are called notions; as if they had their original and constant existence more in the thoughts of men, than in the reality of things; and to form such ideas, it sufficed, that the mind puts the parts of them together, and that they were consistent in the understanding, without considering whether they had any real being; though I do not deny, but several of them might be taken from observation, and the existence of several simple ideas, so combined, as they are put together in the understanding. For the man who first framed the idea of hypocrisy, might have either taken it at first from the observation of one who made show of good qualities which he had not; or else have framed that idea in his mind, without having any such pattern to fashion it by. For it is evident that in the beginning of languages and societies of men,

several of those complex ideas which were consequent to the constitutions established amongst them, must needs have been in the minds of men, before they existed any where else; and that many names that stood for such complex ideas, were in use, and to those ideas framed, before the combinations they stood for ever existed.

§3. Sometimes got by the explication of their names.-Indeed, now that languages are made, and abound with words standing for such combinations, an usual way of getting these complex ideas, is by the explication of those terms that stand for them. For consisting of a company of simple ideas, combined, they may, by words standing for those simple ideas, be represented to the mind of one who understands those words, though that complex combination of simple ideas were never offered to his mind by the real existence of things. Thus a man may come to have the idea of sacrilege or murder, by enumerating to him the simple ideas which these words stand for, without ever seeing either of them committed.

§4. The name ties the parts of mixed modes into one idea.-Every mixed mode consisting of many distinct simple ideas, it seems reasonable to inquire "whence it has its unity; and how such a precise multitude comes to make but one idea, since that combination does not always exist together in nature?" To which I answer, it is plain it has its unity from an act of the mind combining those several simple ideas together, and considering them as one complex one, consisting of those parts; and the mark of this union, or that which is looked on generally to complete it, is one name given to that combination. For it is by their names, that men commonly regulate their account of their distinct species of mixed modes, seldom allowing or considering any number of simple ideas to make one complex one, but such collections as there be names for. Thus, though the killing of an old man be as fit, in nature, to be united into one complex idea, as the killing a man's father; yet, there being no name standing precisely for the one, as there is the name of parricide to mark the other, it is not taken for a particular complex idea, nor a distinct species of actions, from that of killing a young man, other man.

or any

$5. The cause of making mixed modes.-If we should inquire a little farther, to see what it is that occasions men to make several combinations of simple ideas into distinct, and, as it were, settled modes, and neglect others, which, in the nature of things themselves, have as much an aptness to be combined, and make distinct ideas, we shall find the reason of it to be the end of language; which being to mark or communicate men's thoughts to one another with all the dispatch that may be, they usually make such collections of ideas into complex modes, and affix names to them, as they have frequent use of in their way of living and conversation; leaving others, which they have but seldom an occasion to mention; loose and without names to tie them together; they rather choosing to enumerate (when they have need) such ideas as make them up, by the particular names that stand for them, than to trouble their memories by multiplying of complex ideas with names to them, which they seldom or never have any occasion to make use of. § 6. Why words in one language have none answering in another.—

This shews us how it comes to pass, that there are in every language many particular words, which cannot be rendered by any single word of another; for the several fashions, customs, and manners of one nation, making several combinations of ideas familiar and necessary in one, which another people have had never any occasion to make, or, perhaps, so much as take notice of, names come of course to be annexed to them, to avoid long periphrases in things of daily conversation; and so they become so many distinct complex ideas in their minds. Thus oorpaKoμòç amongst the Greeks, and proscriptio amongst the Romans, were words which other languages had no names that exactly answered, because they stood for complex ideas, which were not in the minds of the men of other nations. Where there was no such custom, there was no notion of any such actions; no use of such combinations of ideas as were united, and, as it were, tied together, by those terms; and, therefore, in other countries, there were no names for them.

§ 7. And languages change.-Hence, also, we may see the reason why languages constantly change, take up new, and lay by old, terms; because change of customs and opinions bringing with it new combinations of ideas, which it is necessary frequently to think on and talk about, new names, to avoid long descriptions, are annexed to them; and so they become new species of complex modes. What a number of different ideas are, by this means, wrapped up in one short sound, and how much of our time and breath is, thereby, saved, any one will see, who will but take the pains to enumerate all the ideas that either reprieve or appeal stand for: and, instead of either of those names, use a periphrasis, to make any one understand their meaning.

§8. Mixed modes, where they exist.—Though I shall have occasion to consider this more at large, when I come to treat of words, and their use; yet I could not avoid to take thus much notice here of the names of mixed modes, which being fleeting and transient combinations of simple ideas, which have but a short existence any where, but in the minds of men, and there, too, have no longer any existence, than whilst they are thought on, have not so much, any where, the appearance of a constant and lasting existence, as in their names; which are, therefore, in this sort of ideas, very apt to be taken for the ideas themselves. For if we should inquire, whether the idea of a triumph or apotheosis exists, it is evident they could neither of them exist altogether any where in the things themselves, being actions that required time to their performance, and so could never all exist together: and as to the minds of men, where the ideas of those actions are supposed to be lodged, they have there, too, a very uncertain existence; and, therefore, we are apt to annex them to the names that excite them in us.

§ 9. How we get the ideas of mixed modes.-There are, therefore, three ways whereby we get the complex ideas of mixed modes. 1. By experience and observation of things themselves. Thus by seeing two men wrestle, or fence, we get the idea of wrestling or fencing. 2. By invention, or voluntary putting together of several simple ideas in our minds; so he that first invented printing, or etching, had an idea of it in his mind, before it ever existed. 3. Which is the most usual way, by explaining the names of actions we never saw, or notions we