for that purpose: since that period he seems to have courted obscurity.

525. The European war was renewed in 1803, the peace having been of short duration. The belligerants, who envied the prosperity of these growing states, during the administration of former presidents, and had committed great depredations on our commerce, began to display a more offensive demeanor about the year 1806. By their neutral position, the United States had gained a great accession of wealth, and excited the jealousy of the English, who saw them becoming the carriers of produce between France and her colonies. To counteract this commerce, the law of nations was disregarded, and neu tral rights were violated by the British government.

526. With the intention of destroying all neutral commerce, and particularly that of the United States, the British declared the greater part of the French coast in a state of blockade, in May, 1806, without pursuing the ancient mode of stationing a naval force to put it in execution. The emperor Napoleon retaliated by an edict of a similar nature, dated from Berlin, in November the same year, although he knew the execution of it was impracticable in the state of the French marine. On the 11th of November, the following year, the British issued their memorable orders in council, by which they presumed to forbid any trade whatever with France or her dependencies; and in a subsequent decree of Milan, on December 17th, Napoleon declared all neutral vessels denationalized which should suffer themselves to be visited by an English vessel of war. In these hostile proceedings the English were certainly the aggressors. They had also wounded the national dignity of the United States by an unprovoked attack upon the frigate Chesa peake, on the 22d of June, 1807; by the frequent impressment of American seamen; and by the insulting demeanor of their vessels of war, which were stationed at the mouths of the American harbors, to enforce their orders in council.

527. Remonstrances were tried, without effect, and Congress resolved that the nation could not submit without a surrender of independence. The country was not, however, prepared for war; and although the aggressions of the English far surpassed those of France in magnitude and importance, yet the wrongs inflicted by the latter could not be passed over in silence. A system of restrictions upon commerce was therefore attempted, which should operate equally upon both belligerants. In December, 1807, an embargo was laid upon all American vessels; the restrictions of which were enforced by several

subsequent acts. After the experience of a year, Congress yielded to the clamors of the commercial interest, repealed the embargo law, and substituted an act interdicting the commercial intercourse with Great Britain and France, at a time when it was supposed by many persons that the preceding measure was producing the desired effect in Europe; yet they gave to the president authority to remove the restriction in case of an amicable arrangement.

528. In the year 1809, Mr. Jefferson having declined a reelection, James Madison was chosen president, and George Clinton vice-president. An arrangement was made with Mr. Erskine in April of this year, by which he agreed, on the part of his government, to repeal the obnoxious orders, and the president consented to the renewal of the commercial intercourse between the two countries: but the British government refused to ratify the act of their minister, on the ground of its having been concluded without sufficient authority. The nonintercourse with Great Britain was subsequently renewed; and Mr. Erskine was proved not to have exceeded his instructions. This same year Mr. Erskine was recalled by his government, and succeeded in his functions of ambassador by Jackson, remarkable for having been the diplomatist at the time of the attack upon Copenhagen by the British. This person having, soon after the commencement of his correspondence with the secretary of state, offered a gross insult to the government, the president declined any further correspondence with him, and desired his recall:-his government subsequently removed him, but promoted him to another station.

529. In August, 1810, the French government officially announced to the American minister at Paris, that the Berlin and Milan decrees would cease to operate on the first of November ensuing. The president accordingly issued a proclamation on the second of November, declaring that the intercourse between the United States and France might be renewed. In May, 1811, the British sloop of war Little Belt, one of the many armed vessels which that government had stationed on the coast to harass the American commerce, had the audacity to fire upon the United States frigate President; but a few broadsides from the latter were sufficient to cripple her. Towards the close of the same year, an action was fought at Tippecanoe, between the American infantry, commanded by general Harrison, and a large body of Indians, in which the

latter were defeated.

out.

tinued until 1812, when the increasing outrages of Great Britain called for more decided and effective measures. With a view to hostilities, the president was authorized to augment the number of the regular army. Volunteers were accepted, and the few frigates belonging to the navy were ordered to be fitted War was declared on the 18th of June, 1812, having been recommended by the president in a message to both houses of congress. Notwithstanding the length of time in which hostilities had been meditated, they were commenced with a very imperfect state of preparation on the part of America. An addition to the regular army of 25,000 men had been authorized; but few of them had been enlisted; and few individuals were found sufficiently acquainted with military science to act as officers. The volunteers and militia were undisciplined, yet zealous and patriotic. In consequence of these inadequate preparations, and the want of sufficient foresight, in other respects, on the part of the government, the first operations of the war were marked with ill success.

531. On the 12th of July, 1812, general Hull invaded Canada, and after a short possession of a portion of the enemy's territory, fell back to Detroit. The British having command of the lake, immediately cut off his communication with the state of Ohio, from which he had derived his supplies. Two attempts, which were made to open the route, failed of success. In this situation, a British force, under general Brock, advanced against the American troops; and, without waiting an attack, general Hull surrendered his army prisoners of war on the 16th of August. He was afterwards tried by a court-martial, and condemned to be shot. The president approved the sentence, but remitted the punishment, in consequence of the age and revolutionary services of the general. On the Niagara frontier, the operations of the Americans were almost equally unfortunate. About 1000 troops, commanded by general Van Rensselaer, crossed the river, and attacked the British at Queenstown, on the 13th of October :-they were at first successful, having beaten the enemy at the point of the bayonet; but not receiving the expected reinforcements, they were com. pelled to surrender, after a long and obstinate engagement.

532. The disappointment arising from the failure of these military enterprises, was fully counterbalanced by the glorious success of the American flag on the ocean;-this had formerly been the peculiar theatre of British triumphs. On the 20th of August, 1812, the American frigate Constitution fell in with the British frigate Guerriere, of about equal force:-the latter ad

vanced to the contest, confident in the reputation of the British arms, and anticipating an easy triumph over her opponent; but in the space of about 30 minutes, the well-directed fire of the Constitution placed her in a sinking condition, and she was forced to surrender, with the loss of 100 men in killed and wounded. On board the Constitution only 14 were killed and wounded. This brilliant exploit was followed by others of a similar nature. On the 25th of October, the frigate United States, commanded by Decatur, engaged the British frigate Macedonian, and compelled her to surrender, with the loss of nearly 100 killed and wounded. The Macedonian was afterwards sent to the United States, and added to our navy.

533. In November, the British sloop of war Frolic was captured, after a severe engagement with the American sloop of war Wasp, of inferior force and before the close of this year another brilliant victory added lustre to the American arms. The frigate Constitution, under command of Bainbridge, encountered the British frigate Java, carrying an equal number of guns, but having more than her usual complement of men, and several military passengers. A warm action ensued for about an hour, when the fire of the Constitution reduced her opponent to an unmanageable wreck, and she struck her colors. Her loss was very great, having 60 killed, and 120 wounded; but of the Constitution only 9 were killed, and 25 wounded. The prize was so shattered, it was found impossible to bring her into port: she was therefore destroyed by the captors. In February, 1813, captain Lawrence, of the Hornet, captured the British sloop of war Peacock, of superior force, after an action of 15 minutes. Besides these triumphs of the public vessels of the United States, many gallant exploits were performed by the privateers, which distressed the British commerce in an unprecedented manner.

534. The military operations of the year 1813 were productive of alternate success and reverses. The north-western frontier was again the theatre of misfortune and bloodshed. After the capture of Hull's army, the government immediately called out detachments of troops from Kentucky, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, and placed the whole under command of general Harrison. The arrangements of this officer were well concerted to obtain the recovery of Detroit. In pursuance of this plan, general Winchester moved forward to the rapids of Miami, with about 800 men, and was directed to commence the building of huts. He arrived at this post early in January, and formed a fortified carp; but hearing of an intended assault upon French

town, at the river Raisin, he moved forward to that place. On the morning of the 22d of January, he was suddenly attacked by a large force of British and Indians, commanded by colonel Proctor :-though surprised and surrounded, the troops fought with coolness and bravery, but were finally obliged to yield to superior numbers; and the general surrendered about 500 of them as prisoners of war.

535. On the frontier of lake Ontario, the American arms enjoyed a short advantage. York, the seat of government in Upper Canada, being abandoned by the enemy, was taken possession of by troops under the command of general Dearborn, on the 27th of April. When the Americans had driven before them the best of the enemy's infantry at the point of the bayonet, and were within a short distance of the British outworks, a match was intentionally placed to the magazine, by the explosion of which about 100 of our men were killed; among whom was the brave general Pike, commander of the detachment. He was an officer of distinguished bravery and military talents, and his loss was deeply lamented: but the troops, undismayed by his fall, gave loud cheers, and pushed forward to avenge his death. Having destroyed most of the public stores, the army evacuated York.

536. On the 27th of May, a detachment of our troops attacked fort George, which surrendered after a sharp contest. In retaliation for which, Sir George Prevost made an attempt to surprise Sacket's Harbor; but they were received with so much coolness and bravery by the forces under general Brown, that they betook themselves to flight, leaving their wounded and prisoners in the care of the American general. To compensate for this inglorious defeat, the British surprised the forces under generals Winder and Chandler, during the night, and made them all prisoners of war. Thus was the war pursued with alternate success and defeat, until the 10th of September. On the morning of that memorable day, commodore Perry, with an inferior force, engaged the enemy on lake Erie; and, after a long and well-contested action, the principal American vessel struck her colors;-but the fortunes of the day were retrieved by a bold and unprecedented manœuvre, and by the consummate presence of mind of the youthful Perry, who, after an action of three hours, captured the whole of the British squadron. This glorious victory relieved the whole of the north-western frontier from the presence of the enemy.

537. During the early part of the war, the Atlantic frontier enjoyed comparative peace. In the spring of 1814, a series