mountain system (her backbone), and "the variegated configurations of her surface," he thinks that “national unity with local independence" may easily be developed. Likewise, because more indentations are found on the eastern than on the western sides of the Japanese islands, except in the southwestern island of Kyūshiu, where the opposite is true; because the ports of California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia are open toward Japan; because the HoangHo, the Yangtze Kiang, and the Canton rivers all flow and empty toward Japan; because the latter thus "turns her back on Siberia, but extends one arm toward America and the other toward China and India"; because "winds and currents seem to imply the same thing [by] making a call at Yokohama almost a necessity to a vessel that plies between the two continents," he conceives of his native country as a nakōdo (middleman, or arbiter) "between the democratic West and the Imperial East, between the Christian America and the Buddhist Asia."

But since these comparisons were made, the geography of Eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean has been somewhat altered. Japan has acquired Formosa; the United States has assumed the responsibility of the Philippines; and China is threatened with partition through "spheres of influence." Japan, therefore, seems now to be lying off the eastern coast of Asia, with her back turned on Russia with Siberian breezes and Arctic currents, her face turned toward America, with one hand

stretched out toward the Aleutian Islands and Alaska and the other toward the Philippines, for the hearty grasp of friendship.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

For more detailed information concerning the topics treated in this chapter, the reader is referred to “The Story of Japan (Murray), in the "Story of the Nations" series; "The Gist of Japan" (Peery); and “ Advance Japan" (Morris).

For pleasant descriptions of various portions of Japan, “Jinrikisha Days in Japan" (Miss Scidmore); "Lotos-Time in Japan" (Finck); "Japan and her People" (Miss Hartshorne); and "Unbeaten Tracks in Japan" (Miss Bird, now Mrs. Bishop) are recommended.

The most complete popular work on the country is the "Hand-Book for Japan" (Chamberlain and Mason), 7th edition; and the most thorough scientific treatment is to be found in Rein's "Japan."

CHAPTER II

INDUSTRIAL JAPAN

OUTLINE OF TOPICS: Agriculture; petty farming; small capital and income; character of farmer; decrease of farmers; principal products; rice; tea; tobacco; silk; cotton; camphor; bamboo; marine products and industries. - Mining. - Engineering. - Shipbuilding. Miscellaneous industries. - Mechanical industries. Shopping in Japan. - Wages and incomes. Guilds, labor unions, strikes, etc. Mr. Katayama. - Socialism. - Bibliography.

T

HE chief occupation of the Japanese is agri

culture, in which the great mass of the people are employed. On account of the volcanic nature and the mountainous condition of the country, there are large portions not tillable;1 and for the same reason, perhaps, the soil in general is not naturally very fertile. It must be, and can be, made so by artificial means; but as yet not half of what is fairly fertile soil is under cultivation. Large portions of arable land, particularly in Yezo and Formosa, can be made to return rich harvests, and are gradually being brought under man's dominion. But it can be readily understood that if for any reason the crops fail, severe suffering will ensue, and perhaps become widespread. The prosperity of the country depends largely upon the prosperity of its farmers.

1 See Appendix.

Farming, like almost everything in that land of miniatures, is on a limited scale, as each man has only a very small holding. "There is no farm in Japan; there are only gardens" (Uchimura). Even a "petty farmer" of our Northwest would ridicule the extremely insignificant farms of the Japanese, who, in turn, would be astounded at the prodigious domains of a Dalrymple. A careful investigator, Dr. Karl Rathgen, has summed up the situation as follows: "In Japan are to be found only small holdings. A farm of five chō1 (twelve acres) is considered very large. As a rule the Japanese farmer is without hired labor and without cattle. The family alone cultivates the farm, which, however, is so small that a large share of the available labor can be devoted to other purposes besides farming, such as the production of silk, indigo, tobacco. The average holding for the whole of Japan (excluding the Hokkaidō) for each agricultural family is 8.3 tan1 (about two acres), varying from a maximum of 17.6 tan in the prefecture of Aomori to a minimum of 5.3 tan in the prefecture of Wakayama.' "There are no large landed proprietors in Japan."

A Japanese farm is so insignificant, partly because a Japanese farmer has only a very small capital, and needs only a slight income to support life. It has been estimated that a man so fortunate as to own a farm of five chō1 obtains therefrom an annual income of 100 or 120 yen.1 And yet the Japanese 1 See tables of measurement and coinage, in Appendix.

farmers are very careful and thoroughly understand their business. “In spade-husbandry," says Dr. Griffis, "they have little to learn"; but "in stockraising, fruit-growing, and the raising of hardier grains than rice, they need much instruction."1

A Japanese farmer is hard-working, industrious, stolid, conservative, and yet, by reason of his fatalistic and stoical notions, in a way happy and contented. "Left to the soil to till it, to live and die upon it, the Japanese farmer has remained the same, with his horizon bounded by his rice-fields, his water-courses, or the timbered hills, his intellect laid away for safe-keeping in the priest's hands,

caring little who rules him, unless he is taxed beyond the power of flesh and blood to bear." He is, however, more than ordinarily interested in taxation, for the land-tax of three and one-third per cent of the assessed value of the land amounts to about half the national revenue, and is no inconsiderable part of the state, county, town, and village taxes. A reduction to two and one-half per cent is now vigorously discussed in the press; a bill to that effect, however, has not yet succeeded in passing the Imperial Diet.2

1 See "The Yankees of the East" (Curtis), chap. xiii.

2 The "Shakai Zasshi" has the following on the decrease of farmers: The causes of the phenomenon, briefly stated, are as below: (1) The current methods of farming require no intelligence in the farmer. He works very much like an animal in a purely mechanical fashion. Hence lads with minds are attracted to trade and industry. (2) The universality of education has increased the number of intelligent men among the lower classes, and this has made farmers discontented with their lot. (3) City life offers many attractions to active-minded persons; and hence in Japan, as