to domestic clay; according to their judgment it is so far superior to the domestic clay as to be practically a different product. During the war there were periodic shortages of this commodity, but it is now easily obtainable from England. The domestic color industry has been developed to a point where it is practically independent of the German, although before the war almost all colors came from Germany. The yellowish color of newspapers after the beginning of the war was due to the lack of German red and blue dyes which remove the characteristic natural wood color of the unbleached pulp, making it appear white.

EQUIPMENT.

Most of the equipment used in the United States by manufacturers of printing paper is made in this country. Very little pulp and paper machinery is imported, but considerable quantities are exported to Canada and Japan and to a less extent elsewhere. In 1920 exports of pulp and paper machinery were valued at $2,987,657.

The United States has reached practically a standstill in installing new newsprint machinery. The development of the Canadian newsprint industry has meant the purchase by Canadians of large up-todate machinery from the United States and also, in a measure, from England. Canada has recently begun manufacturing her own paper machines. In the main the Canadian equipment is newer and more efficient.

The table below compares the newsprint machines in Canada with those in the United States, as they were in 1920. The machines are divided into five classes according to their width. Machines up to 100 inches wide may be called small; 101 to 140 inches, mediumsmall; 141 to 170 inches, medium-large; 171 to 200 inches, large; and over 200, extra-large. The larger machines of both countries are employed almost exclusively on newsprint, while the smaller ones in a great many cases are often employed part of the time on other kinds of paper, such as book, sulphite bond, or wrapping paper. The wide machines operate usually at a very rapid speed. They are hence unsuited to the making of other types of paper of whose texture more is demanded than that it shall have the minimum strength necessary to prevent the paper from breaking in the paper machine or in the printing presses. This minimum strength is all that newsprint requires. The table was compiled from Lockwood's Directory of the Paper and Allied Trades. In cases where only the width of the widest trimmed sheet made on the machine was available, a trimming allowance was made and added to the trimmed width so as to reduce all widths in the table to machine widths.

In addition to the machines of the widths shown in the table there were nine machines in the United States varying from 73 inches to 151 inches in width whose width was not separately stated. One American concern did not report the number or width of the machines in one of its mills.

Since the data comprised in the above table were compiled a number of large new machines have been installed in Canada and the United States. The table, neverthless, affords a fairly accurate comparison of the sizes of Canadian and American paper machines.

It will be seen that Canada's machines, though naturally fewer in number than those of the United States, are on the average much larger. In the United States 72.4 per cent of the newsprint machines were in the small and medium-small classes (up to 140 inches in width) compared with 40.4 per cent in the same classes in Canada. Canadian preeminence in the three larger classes is apparent. Of the machines in Canada, 9.6 per cent were of the extra-large variety (over 200 inches).

METHODS OF PRODUCTION.

The pulp and paper industry is thoroughly standardized. Practically all manufacturers in the United States and Canada use nearly the same type and style of equipment, which is almost entirely automatic, requiring only a few tenders and their assistants to operate it. In 1914 only 10.16 per cent of the wage earners were women, and one-tenth of 1 per cent were under 16 years of age.

The beater.-Paper manufacture begins with the beater. The conversion of the wood and rags into pulp is dealt with in the survey on wood pulp and rag pulp.

The beater is a large oblong tub with rounded ends, divided into halves by a partition which stops short of the ends and thus leaves a continuous channel. On one side of this partition, located about twothirds of the way from one end of the beater, is a large roll extending lengthwise across the channel. This is shod with iron bars or blades of oblong cross section running parallel to its axis and protruding about an inch from the surface all around the roll. Asocalled bedplate similarly imbedded with bars extends across and is fastened to the bottom of the tub just under the axis of the roll. The beater is filled with pulp and water. Sometimes waste paper is added. The roll is made to revolve, causing the pulp to circulate steadily around the beater and between the bars or blades of the roll and the bars or blades of the bedplate. The fibers are drawn out, rubbed, thoroughly separated, and to a certain extent cut up. The length of the fiber may be regulated somewhat by adjusting the space between the bars of the roll and those of the bedplate, and also by varying the sharpness of the blades. This process, called beating, lasts anywhere from an hour to several hours, according to the kind of paper to be made and according to the judgment of the man in charge. The proper manipulation of the stock in the beater is one of the essentials of manufacturing good paper and requires great skill and experience.

After the pulp has circulated for a time and is nearing the desired consistency, the other materials are added. Clay, agalite (ground asbestine fiber), or talc is used as a filler to give the paper body and opaqueness and to secure a smooth, polished surface. Filler is

very little used in making newsprint, however. Liquid rosin is used for sizing to eliminate the absorptiveness of the paper and to enable it to receive printing ink satisfactorily. Red and blue aniline dyes are added to dispel the natural yellowish wood color of the pulp, making the paper appear white. Alum has the function of precipitating the rosin and the coloring matter on the fibers.

In an integrated paper mill-that is, one which has attached to it a ground-wood mill and a sulphite plant-the pulp is "slushed" or mixed with water and pumped through large pipes to mixing vats or chests, from which it is pumped to the beaters when needed. In mills which buy either or both kinds of pulp, receiving it in "laps" (folded blankets of pulp), a "shredder" is used. This is a device for shredding the sheets of pulp into fine flakes before it is introduced into the beater.

In modern newsprint mills beaters are dispensed with as mixing agents. The slushed pulp, ground wood, and sulphite are pumped in the desired proportions into huge cylindrical mixing tanks. A mixing tank is ordinarily 14 feet deep and 14 feet in diameter. It holds 21 tons of pulp at a time. Paddles revolve in it with great force, mixing the stock much in the fashion of an egg beater. Containers with alum, sizing, bleaching materials, and other ingredients are connected with each tub. The necessary quantities are measured automatically.

Refining. From the beater or the mixing tank the stock is conveyed to reservoirs or "stuff chests," from which it is pumped up to be passed through a Jordan engine. The Jordan engine gives the last refining touch to the pulp and shortens the beating process. It consists of a hollow cone in which revolves a smaller cone. The pulp circulates between the cones from the smaller to the larger end, propelled by centrifugal force. The contiguous surfaces of each cone are equipped with long, narrow steel bars or blades, each resembling somewhat the runner of a skate, although only about one-fourth inch square in cross section. Between these sets of blades each little bundle of fibers not already broken up by the beating process is separated and the whole stock made homogeneous. From the large end of the Jordan the pulp passes to a second stuff chest, much similar to the one that receives the stuff from the beaters, and is kept in suspension in water by whirling propellers or "agitators' until the paper machine is ready to use it.

The Fourdrinier machine.-The prepared pulp is now conveyed, much diluted with water, to the paper machine, where it is run as a sheet onto a moving screen belt, consisting of fine woven copper wires. Part of the water drains off through the screen and part is removed by suction boxes over which the wire moves. An endless rubber strap called a deckle, at each side of the wire screen, prevents the water and pulp from running off the side of the machine. The distance between the two deckle straps, and thus the width of the sheet of paper, is adjustable. At the end of the screen the sheetpasses between two rolls, which remove more water, runs onto a moving woolen belt, passes through a series of press rolls, which also squeeze out water, is dried by being run over a long series of large internally heated hollow cast-iron cylinders, is passed between calender rolls to polish the surface, and is then wound up on a roll.

Finishing processes.-The process just described ordinarily completes the manufacture of newsprint paper and machine-finished book

paper. The supercalendered and coated grades of book paper receive additional treatment. If a particularly high finish is desired, the paper is run through the supercalendering machines. These consist of a series of alternating pressed paper or cotton rolls and hollow iron rolls placed one over the other. The sheet is moistened with water or with a sizing solution containing gelatine and alum before it is passed through the calendering machine. The paper thus produced is called sized and supercalendered.

Coated paper, used for printing illustrations and thus requiring an especially smooth surface, is paper coated with a solution usually composed of clay mixed with casein to cause it to adhere to the paper. The coating is applied by passing the paper over one roller revolving partially covered in a trough of coating liquid, or between two rollers, according as it is desired to coat one or two sides. Brushes distribute the coating material evenly. The paper is then dried and run through calendering machines to produce the desired finish.

ORGANIZATION.

The efficient conduct of the pulp and paper industry requires large mills, extensive capitalization, and highly developed organization. In 1916 the American newsprint-paper industry operated only 63 mills and the book-paper industry only 70 mills. In January, 1921, 85 mills were making newsprint and 93 mills book paper. Pulp and paper establishments require an investment of approximately $50,000 per thousand board feet of daily consumption, in comparison with $1,500 per thousand feet of daily product required in lumber manufacture.

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Out of about 45 United States companies making newsprint paper in 1916, 14 companies, with an annual output of more than 25,000 tons of paper each, produced more than 82 per cent and 4 companies alone about 55 per cent of total domestic production. These four companies in order of size were the International Paper Co., with some 12 paper mills, 9 of them making newsprint exclusively, the Great Northern Paper Co., the Crown Willamette Paper Co., and the Minnesota & Ontario Power Co. In the book-paper industry, out of a total of 40 companies in the United States, 15 companies, each with a daily capacity of 50 tons or over, were rated to produce 75 per cent of the total output in 1916. Three companies had a rated combined capacity of one-third the total domestic output. These were the West Virginia Pulp & Paper Co., with 15 mills, S. D. Warren & Co., and Crocker, Burbank & Co. Twenty-three book-paper manufacturers, including most of the large ones, belonged in 1917 to a statistical bureau, which has since ceased to exist. A considerable number of the book-paper manufacturers now belong to the Book Paper Manufacturers' Association. The greater number of the American and Canadian newsprint producers are affiliated in the Newsprint Service Bureau.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

The paper and pulp industry is concentrated chiefly in the Northeastern and Lake States, where it was originally established on

• The International Paper Co. in 1921 operated 23 pulp and paper mills.

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account of the proximity to pulpwood forests. In spite of the gradual exhaustion of the forests and the constantly increasing hauls for pulpwood, it has remained geographically almost stationary. It has not, as has the lumber industry, been able to keep near its main supplies of raw material, largely because of the fact that the costliness and lack of mobility of a pulp or paper plant commits it to the region in which it is first established.

In 1919 newsprint-paper production was distributed as follows: New York, 35 per cent; Maine, 32 per cent; Wisconsin, 9 per cent; Minnesota, 9 per cent; and all other States, 15 per cent. In 1914 book-paper production, not including a small amount of paper for plate, lithograph, map, woodcut, etc., was divided as follows: Pennsylvania, 15 per cent; Massachusetts, 14 per cent; Maine, 12.per cent; Michigan, 11 per cent; New York, 10 per cent; Wisconsin, 9 per cent; Ohio, 8 per cent; all other States, 21 per cent. The output in 1919 was distributed in much the same way.

HISTORY OF THE INDUSTRY.

The process of making true paper was discovered by the Chinese. Singularly enough, this earliest paper was made from what was virtually wood pulp and by a method which though simple and crude resembled in essentials the modern process. The papyrus of the Egyptians, though giving us the name, was not a true paper.

Paper manufacture first began in the United States about 1690, when a mill was established near Philadelphia. The modern paper machine, however, was not used for more than a century. It was invented in 1799 by Louis Robert, of Essonnes, France. Up to 1860 American paper manufacturers made use principally of rags for the finer grades and vegetable fibers for the coarser grades.

In the first half of the nineteenth century it became manifest that the supply of rags, straw, and other vegetable fibers was inadequate to meet the growing demand for paper. The pressure for a larger source of raw material brought forth almost simultaneously and apparently independently two discoveries of the process of grinding wood into pulp, one in Nova Scotia and one in Germany. Nova Scotia claims 1838 for her discovery and Germany 1840. However, it was not until 1866 that the first ground-wood machine was installed in the United States. In the meantime soda-pulp manufacture had been introduced from England in 1854. Álthough the sulphite process was invented by an American in 1866, the first sulphite pulp mill in the United States was built in 1887.

After the introduction of the ground-wood process paper making increased at a rapid rate. The estimated daily capacity of American newsprint mills reached 400 tons in 1880 and in 1916 had increased to about 4,700 tons. In the decade prior to 1900, however, this rapid expansion of capacity led to overproduction and a consequent decline in prices. In 1898 the International Paper Co. was organized. It absorbed most of the mills east of the Mississippi River, with the control of from two-thirds to three-quarters of the domestic output: Although this combination appeared to have a temporary effect in strengthening prices, new independent mills were built and overproduction continued. Expansion of the American newsprint industry practically ceased after 1910, the increase in the