small, and is better considered in connection with fine paper than with book paper.

Classification.-It is impossible to differentiate satisfactorily the manifold varieties of fine paper. This is particularly true with the principal group of fine papers, namely, writing papers. Writings, bonds, and ledgers are classified separately, yet bonds and ledgers are actually writing paper. There is no uniform system of classifying bonds, ledgers, papeteries, or linens by raw-material content, by size, or by the use to which they are to be put. Every variety overlaps one or more varieties to some extent. Some varieties bear two names, such as "linen bond." In actual practice, in the mill, the product will often be named according to the dimensions of the finished sheet turned out, because the mill ordinarily sells sheets of certain standard sizes to makers of papeterie, other standard sizes to makers of bond, and yet others to makers of ledgers.

Bonds, ledgers, papeterie. In general, however, the distinctions in terminology are as follows: Bond paper (which derives its name from the fact that it was first used as paper for engraving bonds) is usually of medium weight, is not highly calendered, and hence has not a highly polished surface, and tends to be translucent. When handled, it often has a tendency to rattle. The cheapest bond paper is made of pure sulphite wood pulp and the best of 100 per cent new linen rags. Intermediate grades are made of various proportions of sulphite and old and new cotton and linen rags.

Ledger paper is usually harder, tougher, and has a more polished surface than bond paper. Oftentimes it is heavier also. There are no bond papers of as great a weight as the heaviest ledger papers. A smooth polished surface on which erasures can easily be made is necessary, for ledger paper is most frequently used for bookkeeping, public records, and similar purposes. Strength and durability are also naturally requisites of this sort of paper. It is consequently ordinarily made entirely or in greater part of rags.

Papeterie is the term applied to writing papers for putting up in boxes as stationery. It differs usually from bond and ledger in having a rather soft, coarse texture. It has a dull, rough finish, for, like bond paper it often is not calendered. It is usually rather heavy.

Linen. Of all the terms for writing paper the word "linen" is perhaps the most loosely used. Mr. R. W. Sindall, an English paper authority, some years ago defined linen paper as paper "containing no fibrous ingredient except linen rag. In America at the present time the word linen seems to bear little relation to the raw material used. Linen paper is usually made out of cotton rags, but may contain some linen rags. It may be stated safely that no paper is made in this country entirely out of linen rags, except on orders for certain special purposes. A cotton-rag paper ordinarily serves the purpose of writing just as well as a linen-rag paper. On the whole, the word linen may be taken to denote a high-class product; certain highgrade ledger paper, for instance, is termed linen ledger, though it may or may not contain a small percentage of linen rag.

Finishes linen, kid, etc.-The term linen finish, however, has a more definite significance. A linen finish may be applied to any writing paper. The sheets of paper from the drying lofts, still slightly damp from the animal-glue sizing bath, are placed between

sheets of pure linen cloth, a sheet of zinc or heavy tin being placed between each two sheets of linen. When a pile of paper, linen, and metal sheets about 4 inches thick has been built up it is passed between press rolls, the surface of the linen cloth being thus imparted to the paper. This finish may be given any writing paper, except ledger and record paper. It is occasionally, but not often, given to bond paper. Other finishes such as kid, vellum, and antique are often given. Kid and vellum finishes resemble prepared kid and calfskin, respectively. Antique finish imparts a soft velvety feeling to the paper.

These finishes, given writing paper, are to some extent used also in making the best qualities of book paper.

Other varieties specified in tariff law.-Letter, note, record, tablet, and typewriter papers, as specified in the tariff, are merely subdivisions of the kinds discussed above, classified according to use. Often it is merely the size or the form in which the paper is cut for a particular purpose that determines its tariff classification. Tablet paper is often of material inferior to that used in the other grades named. Drawing paper is a high-grade product made chiefly of rags. In England esparto is much used for drawing paper. Handmade papers, when imported, are usually extra fine and fancy papeteries or special stationery. Japan paper is a paper of a pronounced silky texture, formerly made exclusively from the bark of the mulberry tree, beat out by the Japanese with mallets. Now, however, it is made also of other vegetable fibers. It is used principally for writing, printing, tapestry, imitation Japanese wall hangings, and to some extent in art-craft books. Onionskin paper is a very thin paper, made principally of rags. It is almost transparent, and has a highly glazed surface and a texture almost like the skin of an onion.

Bristol boards.-Bristol boards, because of their classification with cardboard in the tariff act of 1913, and because of their greater thickness compared with other kinds of paper, have been discussed in another Tariff Information Survey. Nevertheless, one kind of Bristol board is really a high grade of writing paper. Bristol board of this type is sometimes made of two or more sheets of fine paper pasted together after they come off the Fourdrinier machine. Some so-called index Bristol board, for use in card-index systems, is made as a single sheet on a Fourdrinier machine. In the opinion of the Bureau of Standards only this kind is entitled to the name Bristol board. In many cases it is impossible to distinguish such a Bristol board from heavy ledger paper, although the fiber used in ledger paper is supposed to be longer, with the result that ledger paper held against the light should appear mottled, while Bristol board should have a uniform appearance. In practice often even this distinction does not exist. In fact, some Bristol board is called index ledger Bristol. Consequently the Tariff Commission recommended that Bristol board of this kind (both pasted and single ply) be separately denominated as "solid Bristol board made on a Fourdrinier machine."

Another type of Bristol board of inferior material is made on a multicylinder machine called filled Bristol. One of the principal varieties of this type is known as bogus Bristol. The method of

1 See Tariff Information Survey, Building Paper, Paper Board, and Filter Masse.

production and tariff classification of cylinder-machine-made Bristol are discussed in the survey on paper boards.

Tariff interpretation of handmade papers. It is to be noted that the papers classified under paragraph 326 of the act of 1913 include certain varieties which, if admitted according to the use specified for them, would fall under a different classification. These are copying, printing, tissue, and bibulous papers that are handmade. Handmade papers of all kinds are dutiable under paragraph 326 instead of under the paragraphs classifying them according to use or texture. (See G. A. 7979, T. D. 36767; Abstract 43915; 2 Ct. Cust. Appls., 237; G. A. 8168, T. D. 37623.)

Envelopes.-The envelopes treated in this discussion, and admitted under paragraph 327, are made of a considerably greater variety of materials than those named in paragraph 326, although the latter form one of the most important groups of constituents of envelopes. Envelopes made of surface coated, parchment, and similar papers, however, are dutiable under paragraph 324 and are discussed in another survey.

Kraft paper (made of sulphate wood pulp) forms the basis for a considerable class of envelopes. These are ordinarily large, strong envelopes and are used mainly for mailing circulars, photographs, pamphlets, and catalogues. Manila envelopes constitute an important class. These are also usually large and strong. They are much used for filing-cabinet purposes and, like kraft envelopes, for mailing circulars. A great many manila and kraft envelopes are made in all sizes with metal clasps for wrapping and for mailing a great variety of small articles. A huge number of envelopes are made to carry the business correspondence of the country and advertising matter of light weight. The great preponderance of these are made of wood pulp, principally sulphite. The stamped envelopes sold at post offices are of this type. Oftentimes the envelopes used by business concerns are of inferior material to the correspondence sheets they contain. The best grade of envelopes (other than ornamental specialties) are those made to be used with fine stationery for social correspondence. These are ordinarily made of the same kind of paper as the paper they contain, and thus may range in content from all sulphite to all new rag.

DOMESTIC PRODUCTION.

Comparison with other kinds of paper.-Fine paper ranks sixth in tonnage among the varieties of paper made in America, being exceeded by paper boards, newsprint, book paper, wrapping paper, and building paper. In 1921 the tonnage of fine paper produced amounted almost to that of building paper, the next higher in scale of production. In value, however, fine paper compares favorably with these other grades. In 1919 it was fifth, but was only slightly less than that of newsprint and that of wrapping paper.

Raw materials. The principal raw materials of the fine-paper industry are cotton and linen rags. As noted above, chemical wood pulp is much used in the cheaper grades of writing paper. In England esparto grass is used to a considerable extent in making medium quality writing paper, although its principal use is in the manufacture of a high-class, soft-textured book paper for lithographic

printing and art illustration. Esparto grass grows wild in Spain and northern Africa, the better grade coming from Spain. It is baled and compressed and shipped in large amounts to England. Small quantities of other fibers are used in the manufacture of japan paper.

Secondary materials are rosin, alum, dyes, china clay, agalite, and animal glue. Rosin is used for sizing purposes, that the finished paper may take ink without blotting. Alum is used to precipitate the rosin and any coloring materials which may be used. Filler is very little used in the fine-paper industry. Agalite and English china clay are the most common fillers for writing paper. Agalite is the cheaper of the two. Glue made from animal hides is much used for sizing fine paper after it has been made on the paper machine. Rags and chemical wood pulp and English china clay are the only ones of these materials that are imported. Obtaining the others presents no difficulty and no tariff problem; the amounts used are comparatively small.

Rags: Rags are obtained both in the United States and from abroad. They are admitted free of duty. Both new cotton and linen cuttings and old rags are imported. New rag cuttings are used principally by the mills making the finest grades of paper. There are a number of mills in Dalton, Mass., for instance, which use no wood pulp and no old rags whatsoever. The development during the war of special processes such as the making of photographic paper, the hydrating process, and the celluloid process, increased the demand for high-grade new rag cutting. Before the war imports averaged annually more than 100,000 tons (not including woolen rags), most of which came from France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Holland, Belgium, and Canada. During the war these imports steadily declined, until in the calendar year 1918 they amounted to less than 2,000 tons. In 1919 they improved to 47,000 tons. In 1920 and 1921 they increased to 136,503 tons and 58,397 tons, respectively. Thus there is no trouble and no tariff problem involved in importing adequate stocks of the principal raw material. Wood pulp: Sulphite wood pulp and even a little soda pulp are used in making the cheaper grades of writing paper. Soda pulp serves the same purpose as esparto pulp in producing a rather thick paper of soft, flexible texture. However, importations of chemical wood pulp into this country are principally for other kinds of paper. The great demand for wood-pulp papers of other sorts, particularly printing paper, has helped to raise the prices and decrease the available supply of wood pulp for making writing paper. However, the greater part of the wood pulp used by the American writing paper industry is available in the United States. The remainder is imported principally from Canada and secondarily from Sweden. It comes in free.

English china clay: English china clay, used to a limited extent as a filler in making writing paper, comes, of course, from England. Many paper manufacturers using it esteem it so much superior to domestic china clay as to be practically a separate commodity.

Coloring materials: Coloring materials used to be imported from Germany, but are now largely domestically produced. Experts state that the American colors so far developed are as good as the German dyes, but that the domestic industry has not yet developed

the great variety of German colors. Also, there are certain colors, such as the so-called indanthrene colors, which have been developed, but have not yet been made in sufficient quantity to be available to the paper industry. In particular, the industry needs indanthrene blue.

Envelope paper: As already noted, the materials of which envelopes are made include kraft and manila paper and certain other papers, as well as the fine paper discussed in this survey.

Equipment. Practically all the machinery and other equipment of the fine-paper industry is manufactured in this country. Some paper machinery was purchased before the war from England and Germany. The American product appears, however, to be as satisfactory as any foreign paper machinery. The American writing-paper manufacturer is in as advantageous a position to secure equipment as the manufacturers in any other country.

Methods of production.-Fine paper is produced in the same way as printing paper, the process of making which is fully described in another survey, except that it often undergoes additional processes after leaving the Fourdrinier machine proper.

Preliminary processes, washing, beating, refining: The old rags are purchased in bales. They are sorted in the rag room and cut up by hand into smaller pieces, after which they usually go through a machine which cuts them into yet smaller pieces. The next process is to revolve them rapidly in a large hollow cylinder, in order to shake out the dust, buttons, and other foreign matter. They are then boiled in lime or in caustic soda in rotary, horizontal, cylindrical boilers. The resulting material, called half stuff, in which the threads are still largely existent in the woven form as cloth, is thereafter placed in washers and thoroughly washed. The washer is a large open oval tub divided in the middle lengthwise by a midfeather, so that a continuous channel exists in which the rag circulates in water. This machine is very much like the beater, described in the survey on printing paper. It is equipped with a cylindrical roll fitted with knives which revolve over a concave stationary bedplate likewise equipped with knives. The turning of this roll causes water and rags to circulate, the rags being cut up finer by the knives of the roll and bedplate. A revolving drum covered with wire cloth and partly submerged, continuously removes the dirty water while the clean water is being put in. After the washing, bleaching solution is added to bleach the rag stock, the bleach being mixed thoroughly by continued turning of the washer roll. The, stock is then clean and white and is ready for the beater. The fibers are not yet isolated, the stock being in the form of little bundles of threads which still retain in a small degree the semblance of the original woven cloth.

The new rags are prepared for the beater in a similar way, except that they usually require less labor and fewer processes. Sorting and dusting are much easier. Rags of the best quality do not require boiling in lime in a rotary boiler and often do not even need to be bleached. Usually, however, a little bleach is added to prevent the stock turning sour. The washing process is a short one or is dis

pensed with altogether.

This rag stock and chemical wood pulp (usually bought and not made by fine-paper manufacturing companies) are the principal materials which go direct into the beater, where the paper-making