The subjects of this enthusiasm were called monks, from μovazos, one that lives alone. They were also called ascetics, from the severities to which they submitted. The monks were originally of two classes. 1. The Eremites, who lived in deserts and in perfect solitude. 2. The Coenobites, who lived in families. The heads of these families were called abbots; an Egyptian word, signifying fathers. Still more severe than the discipline of the ordinary eremites was that of the anchorets, who lived without shelter, and without any fixed residence. They were called anchorets from avazwęɛw, as persons who retired from the world.

In the third century the number of monks was small, and they were mostly confined to Egypt. In the fourth century they became numerous, and began to be organized into regular societies. A single monastic colony, A. D. 348, at Tabenua, in Egypt, amounted to fifty thousand. In the fifth century the system of monasteries was introduced generally throughout the Christian world. But hitherto vows of perpetual celibacy, poverty and obedience, had not been adopted by these orders. All their austerities were submitted to voluntarily, during their pleasure, and abandoned at will. Till the fourth century the monks were all laymen, under the care of the bishops. In the fourth century they began to be admitted to the rank of clergy- Murdock's Mosheim, vol. 1., pp. 267, 328, 329.

men.

Celibacy of the Clergy.

In the first centuries marriage was permitted to the clergy, equally with others; but in the third century it was thought that married persons were more exposed to the assaults of evil spirits than others, and, from this time, marriage began to be discouraged among the clergy. The council of Nice deliberated respecting the question of the expediency of imposing celibacy on all the clergy; but did not adopt it, through the opposition of Paphnutius, an eminent unmarried bishop. - Murdock's Mosheim, vol. 1., p. 166.

Female Monachism.

Monachism began with men, but soon extended to women, who entered into it with similar views, and assumed the title of nuns. The word nun is of Egyptian origin, an signifies pure. The nuns were the pure, or puritans. Murdock's Mosheim, vol. I., pp. 266, 267.

The bishops of Rome and Constantinople having become, by a gradual series of usurpation, the two great Christian patriarchs, and spiritual princes of the world, each became desirous. to obtain the preeminence. A council called by Maurice, a. d. 587, composed of patriarchs, Roman senators and metropolitans, conceded to the bishop of Constantinople, John the Fastor, the title of universal bishop. This was strenuously opposed by the bishop of Rome, who contended that it was profane and anti-christian, and not to be tolerated. But, in 606, the Roman bishop, Boniface III., prevailed on the abominable tyrant Phocas, who had ascended the imperial throne by the murder of the Emperor Maurice, to divest the bishop of Constantinople of the title of universal bishop, and confer it upon himself. From this time, 606, the claim of universal jurisdiction over the Christian world has been steadily persisted in by the bishops of Rome; and this is generally reckoned by Protestants as being the date of the complete establishment of the Papacy.

The bishops of Rome were styled bishops, equally with other bishops, till 604. The title of Pope or Papa, Father, was not exclusively conceded to them, and the use of it by other bishops was not forbidden, till the time of Gregory VII., a. d. 1075. Murdock's Mosheim, vol. 1., pp. 436, 437. Elements of Universal History, by H. White, Trinity College, Cambridge, p.

199.

As Monachism was considered the perfection of Christianity, its professors, in the process of time, were numerously called to the office of bishops and inferior clergy, till, at the end of the fourth century, monastic life was considered an almost necessary preparation for the clerical office, especially for its

highest order of bishops. This gradually led to the introduction of Monachism as an essential requisite for the clerical profession. An attempt to impose this obligation on the clergy had been defeated at the council of Nice; but it was again resumed, and celibacy prescribed first by Cyricius, bishop of Rome, A. D. 385, and after this by several Western councils.

In the East this law of general clerical celibacy was rejected; although it was, in the course of time, imposed on the higher clergy.

Mary, and other saints, were not worshipped till after the fourth century. In the fifth century images of Mary began to be placed in the temples, and she began to receive a degree of homage approaching to divine worship. This was increased in the sixth century, and carried to the greatest pitch of extravagance. Litanies had been originally addressed to God alone, but they were now addressed to Mary and other saints. - Murdock's Mosheim, vol. 1., p. 414.

The monks were originally subject to the authority of the bishops within whose provinces they lived; but, in the seventh century, they became subject to the Pope. They were extremely numerous, and abounded with lunatics, fanatics and profligates. St. Benedict introduced important changes in the system of monkery in 529, one of which was to bind them permanently by the rules of his order. Previously they had changed their rules at pleasure, or even abandoned them entirely. Their principal vows were three; poverty, chastity and obedience. After the time of Benedict these became generally irrevocable. — Murdock's Mosheim, vol. 1., pp. 392–395.

CHAPTER V.

PROGRESS OF THE HIERARCHY.

THE early bishops were parish bishops. They were the pastors of single churches, and presided over single congregations only. Subsequently a great change was effected. Some bishops rose above others. Single communities grew, in many cases, into an aggregation of communities, and formed a diocese, or spiritual province; the metropolitan rose above the common bishop, and the patriarch above the metropolitan, till, in the West, the bishop of Rome attained the primacy; and, in the East, the bishop of Constantinople far exceeded all the other Eastern bishops.

In the larger cities the Christian churches, which began with single congregations, grew, till in many cases they constituted several congregations. These continued to be under one bishop, or general pastor, with separate presbyters, or particular pastors. At Rome, in the beginning of the fourth century, there were forty churches under the bishop of that city.

Besides becoming multiplied in the cities, the churches extended into the country adjacent, and formed a kind of colonial country churches, subject to the city bishop equally with the city churches. Murdock's Mosheim, vol. I., pp. 231-236. Metropolitan bishops presided over a certain number of infe rior bishops, and called and moderated the provincial councils.

Above the metropolitans were the patriarchs, or heads of divisions consisting of several provinces. The principal of these were the bishops of Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem and Rome, and, at a later period, of Constantinople.

The bishop of Rome, at the commencement of the fourth

century, presided over forty churches within the city, besides numerous churches in the country adjacent. His clerical establishment at this time embraced the following list of officers:

1. Presbyters, 46. 2. Deacons, 7. 3. Sub-deacons, 7. 4. Acolyths, 42. 5. Exorcists, 52. 6. Readers, door-keepers, &c. His revenues for charitable purposes supported fifteen hundred widows and poor. Presbyterian Quarterly Review, vol. III., No. 1, 1854.

At this time the jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome did not extend beyond his city and the adjacent district.

Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, A. D. 248-258, writes to the bishop of Rome as only an equal, not as his master or superior.

The sub-deacon collected charitable contributions; the reader had custody of the sacred books, and read them publicly; the acolyth attended on the bishop, and carried a lamp before him; the exorcist exorcised evil spirits from epileptics and from the candidates for baptism; and the door-keeper excluded improper persons from the church, &c.

Tonsure began in the fourth century, the mitre was introduced in the eighth, and the tiara in the tenth.

The fourth council of Carthage, A. D. 398, forbade the clergy to wear long hair or a long beard, or to study beauty of dress. It allowed him to work as an artisan or agriculturist.

The excommunications of the ancient churches were of two kinds :

1. Simple exclusion from membership, with liberty to attend public worship.

2. Exclusion both from membership and from public worship, and from all Christian society.

The Christian emperors were the virtual heads of the church throughout the Roman empire, and were tacitly recognized as such. The imperial rescripts made heresy a civil offence, by affixing civil penalties to it. The laws of Theodosius made it a capital offence in respect to a small section of the Maniche