Upon the most cursory inspection of Cicero's philosophi cal writings, it must appear, that he rather related the opinions of others, than advanced any new doctrine from his own conceptions. It may, however, be of some importance to inquire, more particularly, how a man, who devoted so much of his leisure to study, philosophised, and what tenets he espoused.

Although, for reasons already explained, Cicero attached himself chiefly to the Academic sect, he did not neglect to inform himself of the doctrines of other sects, and discovered much learning and ingenuity in refuting their dogmas. In the sects which he rejected, he could easily distinguish those parts of their doctrine which were most valuable; and he had the good sense and candour to profit by wisdom, wherever he found it. He was an admirer of the doctrine of the Stoics concerning natural equity and civil law; and adopted their ideas concerning morals, as he himself informs his son, 50 not with the servility of an interpreter, but with that freedom which left him the full exercise of his own judgment. That he held Plato in high respect, especially for his philosophy of nature, appears from his own words, 51 and from the labour which he bestowed upon the Timæus. As he conceived the Peripatetic philosophy to differ but little, on the subject of ethics, from the Socratic and Platonic doctrine, he paid it some respect in his moral writings,52 although in other places it fell under his censure. The sect to which he was most averse, notwithstanding that one of his earliest preceptors, and several of his intimate friends, belonged to this school, was the Epicurean: 53 and the contempt in which he held the doctrine of this sect led him to listen with too much credulity to the calumnies, with which the character of its founder was loaded.

Upon the whole, there can be no doubt that Cicero belonged to that class of Academics, who, after Carneades, whilst they confessed the imbecility of the human understanding, admitted opinions on the ground of probability. "I do not," says Cicero, "rank myself among those, who suffer their minds to wander in error, without any

50 De Off. 1. 1. c. 2. 53 De Orat. 1. iii.

54

51 Tusc. Qu. 1. i. c. 21.

52 De Off. 1. i. c. 3. 54 De Off. I. ii. c. 2. Tusc. Q. 1. ii. c. 2. 1. iv. c. 4.

guide to direct their course. For, of what use is the human intellect, or rather, of what value is human life, if all principles, not only of reasoning, but of action, be taken away? If I cannot, with many philosophers, say, that some things are certain and others uncertain, I willingly allow that some things are probable, others improbable." It may be easily perceived, from the general cast of Cicero's writings, that the Academic sect was best suited to his natural disposition. Though all his philosophical works, he paints in lively colours, and with all the graces of fine writing, the opinions of philosophers; and relates in the diffuse manner of an orator, the arguments on each side of the question in dispute: but we seldom find him diligently examining the exact weight of evidence in the scale of reason, carefully deducing accurate conclusions from certain principles, or exhibiting a series of arguments in a close and systematic arrangement. On the contrary we frequently hear him declaiming eloquently instead of reasoning conclusively, and meet with unequivocal proofs, that he was better qualified to dispute on either side with the Academics, than to decide upon the question with the Dogmatists. In fine, Cicero appears rather to have been a warm admirer, and an elegant memorialist of philosophy, than himself to have merited a place in the first order of philosophers. 55

The reader will easily perceive from what has been advanced, that, notwithstanding the great number of philosophical writings which Cicero has left, it would be in vain to attempt a delineation of his philosophical doctrines. For, following the Academic method of philosophising, he instituted no system of his own, but either employed himself in opposing the tenets of other sects, or, where he chose to dogmatise, selected from different sects such opinions, as, he apprehended, could be most plausibly supported, or would most easily admit of rhetorical decoration. In physics, if we except his translation of the Timæus of Plato, and what he has written in the Platonic manner in “The Dream of Scipio," Cicero has advanced nothing in his writings, which is not purely academical, and adapted to overturn the systems of the Dogmatists. In ethics,

55 Aug. de Civ. Dei. 1. ii. c. 27. Heuman. Act. Phil. p. 459.

however, especially upon subjects of practical morality, he made Panætius, and other Stoics, his chief guides, and after them adopted a preceptive tone, and a systematic arrangement. But it is wholly unnecessary to enter into the detail of his moral doctrine, which is of the same colour with that of the Stoic school, except where it takes a slight tincture from the Peripatetic. With respect to theology, there is little reason to doubt that Cicero, whilst he suspended his judgment concerning the subtle questions which had agitated the Grecian schools, adhered to the fundamental principles of religion on the ground of probability, as naturally dictated by reason, and therefore commonly embraced by mankind. 56

The Stoic as well as the Academic school was patronised by many eminent men in the Roman republic. The most distinguished lawyers were, as we have seen, inclined towards this sect, on account of the fitness of its moral doctrine to the purposes of civil policy. Q. Lucilius Balbus became so eminent a master of the Stoic philosophy, that Cicero, in his dialogue "On the Nature of the Gods," 57 appoints him to the office of defending the Stoical theology. Several of the most zealous and able supporters of the tot tering republic, derived no small part of their strength from the principles of Stoicism. But the man, who above all the rest claims our notice, as a Stoic in character as well as opinion, is the younger Cato.

Cato of Utica, so called from the last memorable scene of his life, was a descendant of Cato the Censor, whose rigid virtue, as we have seen, opposed the first admission of Grecian learning into Rome. From his childhood he discovered in his countenance and language, and even in his sports, an inflexible spirit. He had such a natural gravity of aspect, that his features were scarcely ever relaxed into a smile. He was seldom angry, but when provoked, was not without difficulty appeased. In acquiring learning, he was slow of perception, but his memory faithfully retained whatever it received. Being in early life elected to the office of a flamen of Apollo, he made choice of Antipater, a Tyrian, of the Stoic sect, as his preceptor in morals and jurisprudence, that, in his sacred character he might

His lan

exhibit an example of the most rigid virtue. guage, both in private and public, was a true image of his mind, free from all affectation of novelty or elegance; plain, concise, and somewhat harsh; but enlivened with strokes of genius, which could not but be heard without pleasure. He inured himself to endure, without injury, the extremes of heat and cold. To express his contempt of effeminate and luxurious manners, he refused to wear the purple robe which belonged to his rank, and often appeared in public without his tunic, and with his feet uncovered: and this he did, not for the sake of attracting admiration, but to teach his fellow citizens, that a wise man ought to be ashamed of nothing which is not in itself shameful. 58

In the civil war, Cato carried his virtues with him into military life, and exhibited before his fellow commanders an example of unusual moderation, sobriety, and magnanimity. Whilst he was in Macedonia, in the capacity of military tribune, it happened that his brother Cæpio, whom he had always loved, perished in shipwreck. Cato, upon this occasion, forgot his Stoical principles, and so far yielded to the impulse of nature, as to embrace, with many tears and lamentations, the dead body which had been cast upon the shore, and to bury it with splendid sepulchral honours: so difficult is it, by any artificial discipline of philosophy, to subdue the feelings of nature. 59 During his residence in Greece, Cato having heard of an eminent Stoic, Athenodorus Cordyliones, who had rejected the proffered friendship of several princes, and was now passing his old age in retirement at Pergamus, resolved if possible to make him his friend; and as he had no hopes of succeeding by message, undertook, for this sole purpose, a voyage into Asia. Upon the interview, Athenodorus found in Cato a soul so congenial to his own, that he was easily prevailed upon to accompany him into Greece, and, after the term of Cato's military service was expired, to reside with him, as his companion and friend, at Rome. Cato boasted of this acquisition, more than of his military exploits. After his return, he devoted his time either to the society of

58 Plut. in Cat. Val. Max. I. iii. c. 1. Cic. Orat. pro Muræna, c. 29. Ep. Fam. xv. 5. 9 Plut. ib.

Athenodorus, and his other philosophical friends, or to the service of his fellow citizens, in the forum.

60

When Cato had, by diligent study, qualified himself for the duties of magistracy, he accepted of the office of quæstor. He corrected the abuses of this important trust, which negligence or dishonesty had introduced, and by his upright and steady administration of justice merited the highest applause. In every other capacity, he manifested the same inviolable regard to truth and integrity. Whilst he was engaged in the business of the senate, he was indefatigable in the discharge of his senatorial duty: and even when he was among his philosophical friends at his farm in Lucania, he never interrupted his attention to the welfare of the state. It was during a recess of this kind, that he discovered the danger which threatened the republic from the machinations of Metellus; and, with a truly patriotic spirit, he instantly determined, that private enjoyment should give way to public duty. That he might be in a capacity to oppose with effect the designs of Metellus, he offered himself candidate for the office of tribune of the people; and, being chosen, executed the office (notwithstanding the illiberal jests which Cicero, inconsistently enough with his general professions and character, on this occasion cast upon his Stoical virtue) with a degree of probity, candour, and independence, which fully established the public opinion of his superior merit. 61

At a period when the Roman affairs were in the utmost confusion, and powerful factions were repeatedly formed against the state, Cato withstood the assaults which were made upon liberty by Marcellus, Pompey, Cæsar, and others, with such a firm and resolute adherence to the principles of public virtue, that no apprehension of danger to himself or his family could ever induce him to listen to any proposal, which implied a treacherous desertion of his country. Whilst some were supporting the interest of Cæsar, and others that of Pompey, Cato, himself a host, withstood them both, and convinced them that there was another interest still existing, that of the state. When he saw that the necessity of the times required it, in order

60 Plut. ib.

61 Plut. ib. Cic. Pref. parad. Epist. Fam. xv. 5. Orat.

pro Muræna, c. 29.